☢️ Science & Technology — Indian Nuclear Programme
1. Introduction
ATOMIC ENERGY
- Energy produced by atoms through Nuclear Fission or Nuclear Fusion
- Nuclear Fission: Splitting of heavy nucleus (U-235) into lighter fragments
- Nuclear Fusion: Combining of lighter nuclei to form heavier nucleus (requires >10⁶ K)
HISTORY OF NUCLEAR PROGRAMME
- Atomic Energy Commission: Established 10th August, 1948; first Chairman Dr Homi J Bhabha
- Department of Atomic Energy (DAE): Set up 3rd August, 1954
- Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET): Established 3rd January, 1954; renamed Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) in 1967
NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTION
- Neutrons released in fission produce additional fission in further nuclei
- Controlled chain reaction: Nuclear power (reactors)
- Uncontrolled chain reaction: Nuclear weapons (atom bombs)
2. Nuclear Reactor
PARTS OF NUCLEAR REACTOR
- Fuel: U-235, Pu-239 (fissionable material)
- Moderator: Heavy water, Graphite, Beryllium oxide (slows neutrons)
- Coolant: Cold water, Liquid oxygen (removes heat)
- Control rods: Cadmium, Boron (absorb neutrons)
- Shield: Thick concrete + lead layer (radiation protection)
TYPES OF REACTORS
| Reactor Type | Coolant | Moderator | Fuel |
|---|---|---|---|
| PWR (Pressurised Water) | Light Water | Light Water | Enriched Uranium |
| BWR (Boiling Water) | Light Water | Light Water | Enriched Uranium |
| PHWR (Pressurised Heavy Water) | Heavy Water | Heavy Water | Natural Uranium |
| Gas Cooled Reactor | CO₂ | Graphite | Natural/Enriched Uranium |
3. Three-Stage Nuclear Programme
STAGE I: PHWR
- Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors
- Natural uranium fuel produces electricity
- Generates plutonium-239 as by-product
STAGE II: FBR
- Fast Breeder Reactor
- Produces more fissile material than it consumes
- Uses mixed oxide fuel (plutonium-239 + natural uranium)
- U-238 transmutes to additional Pu-239
- Doubling time: Time to produce double the input fissile material
STAGE III: THORIUM-BASED
- Advanced nuclear power system
- Self-sustaining series of thorium-232 → uranium-233 fuelled reactors
- AHWR (Advanced Heavy Water Reactor): Uses thorium-based mixed oxide fuel
4. Nuclear Research Reactors in India
RESEARCH REACTORS
- Apsara: Oldest; designed by BARC; at Trombay (permanently shut down in 2010)
- Cirus: At Trombay; built with Canada assistance (permanently shut down in 2010)
- Zerlina: Zero energy experimental reactor; decommissioned in 1983
- Kamini: At IGCAR, Kalpakkam; first reactor to use U-233 as fuel
- Dhruva: India's largest research reactor; primary source of weapons-grade plutonium
- FBTR (Fast Breeder Test Reactor): Liquid sodium cooled; designed by BARC and IGCAR
5. Nuclear Power Plants in India
OPERATIONAL REACTORS
| Plant | State | Type | Capacity (MWe) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tarapur (TAPS) | Maharashtra | 2 BWR + 2 PHWR | 160, 160, 540, 540 |
| Rajasthan (RAPS) | Rajasthan | PHWR | 100, 200, 220×4 |
| Madras (MAPS) | Tamil Nadu | PHWR | 220×2 |
| Narora (NAPS) | Uttar Pradesh | PHWR | 220×2 |
| Kakrapar (KAPS) | Gujarat | PHWR | 220×2 |
| Kaiga (KGS) | Karnataka | PHWR | 220×4 |
| Kudankulam | Tamil Nadu | VVER | 1000×2 |
ATOMIC ENERGY CENTRES
- BARC: Trombay, Mumbai
- IGCAR: Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu
- Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre: Kolkata
- Centre for Advanced Technology: Indore
- Institute of Plasma Research: Ahmedabad
- Atomic Minerals Directorate: Hyderabad
- Nuclear Fuel Complex: Hyderabad
6. Radioactivity and Radioisotopes
BASIC CONCEPTS
- Radioactivity: Spontaneous disintegration of nucleus
- Discovered by Henry Becquerel; term coined by Madam Curie
- Measured by Geiger counter
- Emissions: α, β, γ particles/rays
RADIOISOTOPES
- Unstable isotopes that release radiation
- All elements with atomic number > 83 are radioisotopes
- Applications: Medicine, Industry, Agriculture, Archaeology, Pharmacology
- Radiocarbon Dating: Uses C-14 for estimating age of organic material
7. Nuclear Tests and Doctrine
POKHRAN TESTS
- Pokhran I (Smiling Buddha): 18th May, 1974 — first nuclear test
- Pokhran II (Operation Shakti): 11th & 13th May, 1998 — 5 nuclear devices
- India became 6th nuclear power
NUCLEAR DOCTRINE
- No First Use (NFU): India committed to not using nuclear weapons first
- Credible Minimum Deterrent: Sufficient survivable nuclear forces
- NCA (Nuclear Command Authority): 3-tier authority to manage nuclear weapons
8. Regulations and Treaties
IAEA & AERB
- IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency): Promotes peaceful use of nuclear energy; India contributes to Nuclear Security Fund
- AERB (Atomic Energy Regulatory Board): Formed in 1983; under Atomic Energy Commission
NPT & CTBT
- NPT (Non-Proliferation Treaty): 1970; 5 nuclear-weapon states; India has NOT signed
- CTBT (Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty): 1996; India has NOT signed
- NSG (Nuclear Supplier Group): 48 countries; relaxed guidelines for India without NPT
CIVIL LIABILITY FOR NUCLEAR DAMAGE ACT, 2010
- Provides civil liability and prompt compensation to victims
- Amends Atomic Energy Act, 1962
- Allows private investment in nuclear programme
- Max liability: USD 210 million by operator; up to USD 300 million by Central Government
Summary: Indian Nuclear Programme at a Glance
| Topic | Key Point |
|---|---|
| Atomic Energy Commission | 10th August, 1948 |
| DAE Established | 3rd August, 1954 |
| BARC | Formerly AEET; renamed 1967 |
| Pokhran I | 18th May, 1974 |
| Pokhran II | 11th & 13th May, 1998 |
| Kamini | First reactor with U-233 fuel |
| NPT | India has NOT signed |
KEY TAKEAWAYS FOR UPSC
- Atomic Energy Commission: 10th August, 1948; Dr Homi J Bhabha
- DAE: 3rd August, 1954
- BARC: Formerly AEET; renamed 1967
- Three Stages: PHWR → FBR → Thorium-based
- Kamini: First reactor to use U-233 as fuel (at IGCAR, Kalpakkam)
- Pokhran I: 18th May, 1974; Pokhran II: 11th & 13th May, 1998
- Nuclear Doctrine: No First Use (NFU) + Credible Minimum Deterrent
- NPT & CTBT: India has NOT signed either
- NSG: Relaxed guidelines for India without NPT
- Civil Liability Act, 2010: Allows private investment
High-Yield Interactive UPSC Quiz (Science & Technology — Indian Nuclear Programme)
Q1. Atomic Energy Commission was established in which year?
Correct Answer: B. Atomic Energy Commission was established on 10th August, 1948.
Q2. Who was the first Chairman of Atomic Energy Commission?
Correct Answer: B. Dr Homi J Bhabha was the first Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission.
Q3. BARC was renamed in which year?
Correct Answer: C. Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay was renamed Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1967.
Q4. Which is the first reactor to use U-233 as fuel?
Correct Answer: C. Kamini at IGCAR, Kalpakkam is the first reactor in the world designed specifically to use U-233 as fuel.
Q5. Pokhran II nuclear tests were conducted in which year?
Correct Answer: C. Pokhran II (Operation Shakti) was conducted on 11th and 13th May, 1998.
Q6. What is the maximum liability amount by operator under Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010?
Correct Answer: B. The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010 provides for maximum liability of USD 210 million by the operator.
Q7. Which treaty has India NOT signed?
Correct Answer: B. India has not signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
Q8. The three-stage nuclear programme was formulated by:
Correct Answer: B. India's three-stage nuclear power programme was formulated by Dr Homi J Bhabha in the 1950s.
Q9. Which is India's largest research reactor?
Correct Answer: B. Dhruva is India's largest research reactor and primary source of weapons-grade plutonium.
Q10. The Nuclear Command Authority is headed by:
Correct Answer: B. The Political Council of the Nuclear Command Authority is headed by the Prime Minister.