5.1 Babur (1526-1530 AD)

• Babur's distinguished ancestry traces its roots to Turko-Mongol conquerors: Timur through his paternal lineage, and Mongol ruler Chengiz Khan through his maternal lineage.
• First Battle of Panipat (1526) was fought between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi.
• Battle of Khanwa (1527): Fought between forces of Babur on one side and Rana Sanga along with Mahmud Lodi (brother of Ibrahim Lodi) and Hasan Khan Mewati (ruler of Mewat) on the other. He later took the title of Ghazi after this war.
• Battle of Chanderi (1528): Led to Babur's victory over Medini Rai of Chanderi in Malwa.
• Battle of Ghagra (1529): He fought against the combined forces of Mahmud Lodi and Nusrat Shah (Bengal) along the banks of the Ghagra.
• Although gunpowder was known in India earlier, Babur exemplified its skilled use with artillery and cavalry.
• Babur introduced a new warfare method known as the Tulguma system in the first battle of Panipat. Tulughma meant dividing the whole army into various units.
• Introduced Char Bagh (Persian-style garden layout); Constructed mosques in Panipat and Sambhal.
• His autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Baburi (written in Turkish) provides an insight into his military strategies.

5.2 Humayun (1530-1540 AD & 1555-1556 AD)

• Siege of Chunar [Mirzapur] (1532): He defeated the Afghans at Dardah and after that besieged Chunar fort (also known as the gateway of eastern India).
• Battle of Chausa [Buxar] (1539): Suffered defeat at the hands of Sher Shah Suri, narrowly escaping the battlefield.
• Battle of Kannauj (1540): Sher Shah Suri achieved complete victory over Humayun and established an independent rule.
• Humayun left India, and during his stay in Amarkot (Sindh, Pakistan), Akbar was born in 1542.
• Humayun then travelled to Iran, seeking assistance from its ruler, Safavid Shah.
• In 1555, Humayun won over the Afghans and reclaimed Delhi with support from Bairam Khan.
• In 1556, he died due to a fall from the staircase of his library.

Art and Architecture

• Built a new city in Delhi named Dinapanah. Constructed the Jamali mosque and mosque of Isa Khan in Delhi. His wife, Hamida Benu Begum, started the construction of Humayun's Tomb.
• While in Persia, Humayun laid the foundation of Mughal painting, and brought notable painters Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad to India. He founded the Nigaar Khana (painting workshop).
• He started the project of illustrating Hamza Nama, which was continued by Akbar.

5.3 Sher Shah Suri (Sur Empire) (1540-1555 AD)

• He received the title of Sher Khan after killing a tiger.
• In 1540, he defeated Humayun, marking the establishment of the second Afghan Empire in India.
• The Conquest of Sher Shah includes Malwa and Ranthambore in 1542, Raisen (near Bhopal) in 1543, Chittor in 1544, and Kalinjar (Banda dist., UP) in 1545.
• While besieging the Kalinjar fort in Bundelkhand in 1545, Sher Shah died in an accidental gunpowder blast.

Administration

• Key ministers included:
  • Diwan-i-Wizarat (Wazir) in charge of Revenue and Finance,
  • Diwan-i-Ariz overseeing the Army,
  • Diwan-i-Risalat as the Foreign Minister, and
  • Diwan-i-Insha handled communications.
• Sher Shah divided his empire into Sarkars. Each governed by a Chief Shiqdar (law and order) and a Chief Munsif (judge).
• Each sarkar was further subdivided into several Parganas. Each administered by a Shiqdar (military officer), Amin (land revenue officer), Fotedar (treasurer), and Karkuns (accountants).
• The village (Mauza) was the basic revenue unit, with hereditary chiefs collecting taxes and serving as intermediaries between the state and peasants.
• Amin was responsible for the construction and repair of embankments and protecting cultivable land.
• Streamlined trade imposts and collected taxes only at points of entry and sale; Standardised the metal content in gold, silver, and copper coins; Created a system of uniform weights & measures to facilitate trade; Issued a silver coin, which was termed Rupiya weighing 178 grains.
• Personal force, known as Royal Khalsa Khail.
• Restored Grand Trunk Road - (Uttarapatha of ancient times): Tamralipti in Bengal to Purushpur in Peshawar and Built Sarais (rest houses) on the trade routes.
• Construction of a new walled city in Delhi, known as Purana Qila (Old Fort), and Built his own mausoleum in Sasaram.
• Imposed Jaziya on the Hindus.

5.4 Akbar (1556-1605 AD)

• Bairam Khan was Akbar's tutor and his most trusted ally. He served as a regent from 1556-60 AD.
• Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Hemu and the Afghan forces were defeated by the Mughal forces under Akbar.
• Gujarat (1573): From Muzaffar Shah, later Gujarat became a launch pad for the annexation of Deccan.
• Battle of Haldighati (1576): Akbar secured a decisive win in the Battle of Haldighati where Maharana Pratap suffered severe defeat at the hands of the Mughal army under Man Singh.

Administration

• Divided empire into 12 provinces (suba), endowing each with a Diwan, Bakshi, Sadr, and Qazi who replicated the functions of their central counterparts. Provinces were further subdivided into sarkars and Parganas.
• Suba (Province):
  • Headed by a Subedar responsible for law and order.
  • Diwan managed revenue, supervised collections, and increased cultivation.
  • Taccavi (loans) to peasants were facilitated through revenue department.
  • Bakshi oversaw horses and soldiers.
  • Sadar represented central authority, overseeing religious and judicial matters.
• Sarkar (District):
  • Headed by Faujdar who took care of rebellions and law and order problems, protecting residents and assisting in revenue collection.
  • Amalguzar/Amil was the most important revenue collector. A good amil was supposed to increase the land under cultivation and induce the peasants to pay revenue willingly without coercion.
• Pargana:
  • Headed by Shiqdar (executive officer) who assisted Amalguzar in revenue collection.
  • Quanungo maintained land records.
  • Kotwals, appointed in towns, maintained law and order.
• Village:
  • Headed by Muqaddam (village headman).
  • Patwari managed village revenue records.
  • Zamindars assisted in law and order and revenue collection.
  • Forts were administered by a Qiladar.

Land Revenue System

• Land Revenue Arrangements include two stages of revenue collection: Assessment (Jama) and Actual collection (Hasil).
• Zabt/Zabti System (enforced by Sher Shah and adopted by Akbar), associated with Raja Todar Mal, also called Todar Mal's Bandobast.
• The Dahsala System, introduced in 1580 AD, calculated revenue based on the average yield of the past ten years, factoring in local prices. Parganas with similar productivity were organised into distinct assessment circles.
• Land was categorised into the following with their respective assessment rates: Polaj (under cultivation almost every year); Parati (uncultivated land); Chachar (fallow for two to three years), Banjar (fallow more than five years) and Karoris were appointed for collection and audit of revenue.
• Amils (revenue collectors) were encouraged to support peasants by providing Taccavi loans for diverse needs and enabling repayment in manageable instalments.

Architecture

• Agra Fort was constructed using red sandstone. Inside Agra Fort, Akbar built the Jahangiri Mahal, incorporating Hindu design principles inspired by the Man Mandir.
• Fatehpur Sikri (The City of Victory): It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It includes:
  • Buland Darwaza (built after the victory over Gujarat in 1572),
  • Jama Masjid, Jodha Bai's palace,
  • The Panch Mahal designed akin to a Buddhist Vihara,
  • The Diwan-i-Khas, the Diwan-i-Aam, and
  • Sheikh Salim Chisti's tomb.

Religion

• Akbar married Harkha Bai (daughter of Raja Bhar Mal of Amber) and princesses from Bikaner and Jaisalmer.
• Construction of Ibadat Khana (Hall of Prayers) at Fatehpur Sikri.
• Akbar introduced a new religion called Din-i-Ilahi or Tauhind-i-Ilahi (Divine Monotheism) in 1582. It emphasised belief in one God and "Sulh-i-Kul" incorporating positive aspects from various religions with a rational foundation as documented by Badayuni. Despite efforts, Din-i-Ilahi did not gain widespread acceptance and gradually faded after Akbar's demise.

Art & Literature

• Akbar Nama was compiled by Abul Fazl. It contained three volumes of the history of Akbar's reign.
• Ain-i-Akbari deals with Akbar's administration, army, revenues, and geography of his empire.
• Mahabharata, renamed 'Razmnama' (Book of Wars) was translated into Persian. It was completed in 1589 under the supervision of master artist Daswant.
• Prominent painters: Daswant and Basawan.
• Madonna and Child (1580) by Baswan is an important work of the Mughal School of Painting.
• Akbar Hamzanama (best known for the enormous illustrated manuscript).

5.5 Jahangir (1605-1627 AD)

• Nur-ud-din Jahangir, known as 'Salim' after Sufi saint Sheikh Salim Chishti. He was born to the Rajput princess Mariam-uz-Zamani (also known by the name Jodha Bai).
• His Persian wife Mehrunnisa, renamed Nur-Jahan by Jahangir, became the real power behind the throne. Coins were issued in her name, and she was given the title of Badshah Begum.

Administration

• He added the "duh-aspah-sih-aspah" system, a modification of the Mansabdari system, where a Mansabdar could maintain a larger cavalry without raising his zat rank.
• Duh-aspah - a trooper with two horses.
• Sih-aspah - a trooper with three horses.
• He introduced 'Zanjeer-E-Adal' (chain of justice).

Art & Literature

• Moti Masjid was built by Jahangir in Lahore.
• Shalimar Garden was constructed in Kashmir.
• Under Jahangir, the Mughal paintings achieved naturalism and scientific accuracy of the highest degree.
• He was particularly interested in the portrait style. He introduced the use of halos (circular divine light behind the head) in portraits during his reign.
• The Muraqqas (individual paintings to be mounted in albums) became popular.
• Jahangir wrote his autobiography Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in Persian.

5.6 Shah Jahan (1628-1658 AD)

• Under his emperorship, the Mughals reached the peak of their architectural achievements and cultural glory.
• Deccan: Launched campaign against Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, and Golconda.
• North-west: the campaign to seize Balkh from the Uzbegs was unsuccessful and Qandahar was lost to the Safavids. Afghan noble Khan Jahan Lodi rebelled and was defeated.
• Bundelas were defeated and Orchha seized.

Administration

• There was an exceptional increase in the number of mansabdars, consuming more than three-fourths of the revenues of the state.
• The highest form of submission Sijda (complete prostration) was replaced with Chahar Taslim (mode of salutation done four times) and Zaminbos (kissing the ground).

Architecture & Literature

• The Mughal Empire reached its architectural zenith under Shah Jahan.
• In 1631, Shah Jahan started the construction of the Taj Mahal in memory of his wife, Mumtaz Mahal (Arjumand Bano Begum). It was completed in 1648.
• During Shah Jahan's reign mosque-building flourished, with notable constructions including: Moti Masjid in Agra (crafted entirely in white marble); Sheesh Mahal and Mussaman Burj in Agra; and Jama Masjid in Delhi was built using red stone.
• Shah Jahan's reign saw the pinnacle of fort-building, which included the Red Fort in Delhi with the Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Aam, and Diwan-i-Khas.
• Shah Jahan is also credited with the construction of Shalimar Bagh in Lahore and the establishment of the city of Shahjahanabad.
• The famous Peacock Throne in the Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audiences) in the Red Fort of Delhi was built for Shah Jahan.
• Inayat Khan authored 'Shah Jahan Nama' (an unillustrated chronicle of the reign of Shah Jahan).
• His court historian Abdul Hameed Lahori authored 'Badshah Nama' (an illustrated group of works written as the official history of the reign of Shah Jahan).

5.7 Aurangzeb (1658-1707 AD)

• Aurangzeb (Alamgir, "World Conqueror") rose to power in 1658. His reign of fifty years falls into two equal parts:
• First twenty-five years: He resided in the north, chiefly at Delhi, and personally occupied himself with the affairs of northern India, leaving the Deccan in the hands of his Viceroys.
• Around 1681: He was prompted by the rebellion of one of his sons, Prince Akbar, to go to the Deccan. He never returned to Delhi, died at Ahmad Nagar in 1707.

Religious Views

• Strict religious policy marginalising non-Muslims led to various uprisings: Jat rebellion in 1669 and 1685; Satnami rebellion in 1672; Execution of the ninth Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur, which led to the Sikh rebellion in 1675.
• Prohibited court music, drinking of wine, and use of opium.
• Reinstated Jizya and pilgrimage tax on Hindus.
• He dismissed court musicians and royal painters and discontinued the practice of Jharokha darshan.
• He replaced the Solar calendar with the Hijra calendar under the Influence of Nakshabandi Sufi order.
• Muhtasibs were appointed to uphold moral codes and sharia.
• Discontinued "abwab," a tax levied on the lands over and above the original rent.
• For rigorous adherence to Islamic principles, he was often referred to as Zinda Pir (living saint).

5.8 Mughal Administration

Land Categories

• Khalisa land: owned by the emperor directly.
• Jagir: Given to Mansabdars as salary.
• Inam: Assigned to learned and religious men.

Important Officials

• Wazir or Diwan-i-ala: Headed the revenue department but did not hold a high mansab.
• Mir Saman: In charge of the imperial household, managing supplies and provisions.
• Sadr-us-Sudur: He was the head of the ecclesiastical department.
• Mir Bakshi: Head of military administration, overseeing armed contingents and war equipment. He personally supervised the branding of the horses (Dagh) and checked the muster-roll (Chehra) of the soldiers.

Mansabdari System

• The term "mansabdar" referred to an individual who held mansab, meaning a position or rank.
• It was a grading system used by the Mughals to fix (1) rank, (2) salary, and (3) military responsibilities.
• Rank and salary were determined by a numerical value called zat.
• The mansabdar's military responsibilities required him to maintain a specified number of sawar or cavalrymen.
• Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments called jagirs.
• Jagirs were subject to regular transfers and were not hereditary. Further, these were reverted to the state upon Mansabdar's death.

Akbar's Navratanas

5.9 The Later Mughals

Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712 AD)

• Mughal historians have entitled him "Shah-i-Bekhabar," due to his administrative inefficiency.
• Demonstrated tolerance towards Hindus, although he didn't abolish the jizya tax.
• Initiated peace with Guru Gobind Singh, but subsequent Sikh rebellions post the Guru's death saw him leading campaigns against the Sikhs.

Jahandar Shah (1712-1713 AD)

• After Bahadur Shah's death, Mughal politics changed, with nobles becoming the king-makers and the emperors becoming their puppets. Jahandar Shah emerged as the first puppet ruler, with Zulfiqar Khan (Wazir) holding real power.
• He ordered the abolition of the Jizya tax.

Farruk Siyar (1713-1719 AD)

• He came to power with the help of the Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan (Wazir) and Husain Ali Khan Baraha (Mir Bakshi).
• In 1717 AD, Farrukh Siyar granted significant trading privileges to the East India Company and exempted customs duties for their trade through Bengal.

Muhammad Shah (Rangeela) (1719-1748 AD)

• He ousted the Sayyid brothers around 1720.
• Under his reign, several states declared independence: Nizam-ul-Mulk ruling the Deccan; Saadat Khan leading Awadh; and Murshid Quli Khan governing Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa.
• The fragility of the Mughal Empire was exposed when Nadir Shah invaded India around 1739 AD.

Alamgir II (1754-1759 AD)

• The famous Battle of Plassey, 1757 AD, took place during his reign.
• This battle facilitated the British East India Company's takeover of Bengal.

Shah Alam II (1759-1806 AD)

• In 1764, he, alongside Mir Qasim and Shuja-ud-Daula, waged war against the English East India Company but faced defeat at the Battle of Buxar.
• Subsequently, he resided in Allahabad as a British pensioner (first one) until 1772, when he returned to Delhi under Maratha protection.

Akbar II (1806-1837 AD)

• He reigned under British protection post-1803 AD capture of Delhi by the British, noted for bestowing the title of "Raja" upon Ram Mohan Roy.
• Acknowledged as a distinguished poet, initiated the Phool Walon Ki Sair, promoting Hindu-Muslim unity.

Bahadur Shah II (1837-1857 AD)

• Last Mughal Emperor and celebrated Urdu poet under the pen name "Zafar."
• Played a pivotal role in the 1857 Revolt and was proclaimed the Emperor of India by the rebels.
• Post-revolt, he faced exile in Rangoon (modern-day Myanmar) and died there in 1862.

6. Summary: Mughal Rulers