1.1 Tripartite Struggle

The Palas (750–1161 AD)

• The Pala Empire was founded by Gopala (750–770 AD) and known as the "Kingdom of Dharma" by the Arabs. He founded a Buddhist Mahavihara at Odantapuri (Bihar).
• Dharmapala assumed the titles Paramesvara, Parambhattaraka and Maharajadhiraja. He founded Vikaramashila monastery in Bhagalpur (Bihar). Khalimpur copper plate inscription mentions the extent of his kingdom.
• Devapala extended Pala control eastwards up to Kamarupa (Assam). He defeated the Rashtrakuta ruler, Amoghavarsha.
• The rise of the Pratiharas in Jalore under Mihira Bhoja and the advance of the Rashtrakutas into Pala territories inevitably brought about the decline of the Palas.
• They were devout Buddhists and promoted Mahayana Buddhism.

Gujara Pratiharas (Agnikula Rajputs) (8th–11th Century AD)

• Founded by Harichandra and called Al-Jurz by Arabs.
• They captured a large part of Madhyadesh and Kanauj by the 9th century. Initially ruling from Bhilmal, they subsequently shifted their capital to Kanauj.
• The Pratiharas were noted for their opposition to Arab forces and their strategic conflicts with the Palas and the Rashtrakutas.
• Their important rulers include Nagabhatta I (730-760 AD), Vatsaraja (780-800 AD), Nagabhatta II (800-833 AD) and Mihir Bhoja (836-885 AD).
• Nagabhatta II revived the dynasty and his suzerainty was recognised by rulers of western Kathiawar, Andhra, Kalinga and Vidarbha.
• Bhoja consolidated a vast empire stretching from Punjab and Kathiawar to Koshal and Kanauj, with several contemporary powers acknowledging his suzerainty.
• Subsequent weaker rulers couldn't maintain the vast empire, facing assaults from the Rashtrakutas.

The Rashtrakutas (753-975 AD)

• The Rashtrakutas, referred to as Ballahara by the Arabs, emerged as a significant power around 743 AD in the Deccan, ruling from their capital at Manyakheta, present-day Malkhed.
• The important rulers include Dantivarman or Dantidurga (735–756 AD), Dhruv Dharavarsha (779-793 AD), Amoghavarsha I (814–880 AD), Krishna III among others.
• Dhruv Dharavarsha (779-793 AD) marked the dynasty's northern expedition, defeating prominent rulers like Vatsaraja (Pratihara king) and Dharmapala (Pala king).
• Amoghavarsha I composed one of the earliest Kannada literature texts, the Kavirajamarga. He took the titles Nripatunga, Atishayadhavala, Maharaja-shanda and Vira-Narayana.
• The decline of the Rashtrakutas began under his reign due to weaker military acumen. Under his successor, Krishna II, the kingdom experienced further decay.
• The three gems of ancient Kannada literature–Kavichakravarthi Ponna, Adikavi Pampa and Kavichakravarti Ranna – were patronised by Rashtrakuta king Krishna III, as well as by Tailapa and Satyashraya of Western Chalukyas.

1.2 Dynasties of the North

Chandelles of Jejakabhukti (Bundelkhand) (9th-13th century AD)

• The Chandella dynasty was founded by Nannuka.
• Important rulers include: Yasovarman, Vidyadhara and Paramardideva.
• Architectural legacy is visible in the magnificent temples at Khajuraho.

Paramaras of Malwa (9th-14th century AD)

• They were originally vassals of the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas.
• Upendra/Krishnaraja founded it with Dhar as its capital.
• Important rulers include: Munja/ Vakapatiraja II and Raja Bhoja.
• Under Raja Bhoja, the dynasty reached its zenith. He authored books on subjects like medicine, astronomy, religion, and architecture. He founded the city of Bhojapur near Bhopal.
• Mahālakadeva (died 1305 AD), the last ruler of the Paramara dynasty, was defeated by the forces of Alauddin Khalji.

Tomaras of Dhillika (Delhi) (8th-12th century AD)

• They ruled the Hariyana (Haryana) with their capital at Dhillika (Delhi) and were the feudatory of the Pratiharas.
• They often had conflicts with the Chahamanas of Shakambhari, and the Chahaman followed their rule.
• The most important king was Anangapala Tomara. He established Delhi, and he was described in the 11th-century inscription of the Iron pillar at Mehrauli.
• Anangapala II was the founder of the citadel of Lal Kot in the Mehrauli area and also built a tank known as the Anang Tal.
• The Suraj Kund reservoir (near Faridabad, Haryana) was commissioned by Surajpala.

Chahmanas or Chauhans of Sakambhari (6th-12th century AD)

• The dynasty was named after their capital, Sambhar in Rajasthan. It was founded by Simharaja.
• Important rulers include: Ajayaraja (founded Ajmer), Prithviraj III and Vigraharaja IV (Constructed the Adhai din ka Jhonpra (now mosque) which was originally a college).
• Chandbardai wrote Prithviraj Raso (in Braj Bhasa) on the life of Prithviraj III.
• Prithviraj fought two wars with Muhammad Ghori:
• First Battle of Tarain (1191): It ended in victory for the Rajputs.
• Second Battle of Tarain (1192): Prithviraj lost to Muhammad Ghori.

Gahadvalas of Kannauj (11th-12th century AD)

• They were Suryavanshi Kshatriyas who ruled the kingdom of Kannauj in the late 11th century.
• Important rulers include: Chandradeva (founded this dynasty), Vijayachandra and Jaichandra.
• In the Battle of Chandawar (1194 AD), Mohammad Ghori defeated Jaichandra and sacked the kingdom.
• Jaichandra's grandson, Siyaji, founded the Rathore clan, which ruled the princely state of Marwar from Jodhpur.

Kalachuris of Tripuri (10th-12th century AD)

• Founded by Kokalla-I (845-855 AD). They are also known as Katasuris, Haihayas, and Chedis. Their earliest seat of power was Mahishmati on the Narmada.
• The famous poet Rajasekhara lived in the Kalachuri court.

Chalukyas (Solanki) of Gujarat (950-1300 AD)

• Important rulers include: Bhima I, Jayasimha Siddharaja and Kumarpala.
• During the reign of Bhima, Mahmud Ghazni invaded Gujarat and looted the Somnath temple.
• During the reign of Kumarapala's minor grandson, Gujarat faced Muhammad Ghur's invasion.
• Karna II, the last Hindu king of Gujarat, confronted Alauddin Khalji's forces.

Kashmir

• In Kashmir, the Karkota dynasty, known for its rulers like Lalitaditya and Muktapida, was succeeded by the Utpalas in the mid-9th century.
• Avantivarman (855-883 AD), the founder of the Utpala dynasty, significantly developed drainage and irrigation systems to provide relief from floods.
• The reign of the renowned Queen Didda was marked by unrest and led to the rise of the Lohara dynasty.

1.3 Key Dynasties of East and North-East India

Assam

• The Pralamba dynasty emerged in the ninth century in the Assam region.
• An unidentified king from this dynasty successfully repelled Bakhtiyar Khalji's attack, inflicting significant losses on the invaders.
• By the mid-13th century, the Ahoms, a subgroup of the Shan tribe, established the Ahom Kingdom, leading to the region being named "Assam". The Ahom state depended upon forced labour. Those forced to work for the state were called paiks.

Varmans and Senas of East Bengal (11th Century AD)

• The Varmans rose to power in the early 11th century, succeeded by the Senas, who likely originated from the Kannada-speaking region and claimed links with the kings of Dakshinapatha.
• Vijayasena's reign detailed in the Deopara Prasahsti inscription (stone inscription). His successor, Ballala Sena, was noted for his learning, authorship, and the introduction of the social system of Kulinism.
• Lakshmanasena, the last Hindu ruler of Bengal and son of Ballal Sena, known for his cultural advancements, had notable literary figures like Jayadeva (Gita Govinda), Halayudha and Sridharadasa at his court.

Kalinga, Orissa

• In the mid-7th century, Orissa was under the rule of Sainyabhita Madhavavarman (Srinivasa) of the Shailodbhava dynasty, noted for performing the Ashwamedha sacrifice.
• The Eastern Gangas, related to the Gangas of Mysore, established their domain in Kalinga, with Kalinganagara as their capital.
• Anantavarman Chodaganga laid the foundation for modern Orissa and constructed the Jagannath temple.
• Narasimha I (1238-1264 AD) commissioned the construction of Sun Temple at Konark.
• In the mid-15th century, a new royal family, the Suryavamsas, came to power in Kalinga. Lingaraj temple, Bhubaneswar (related to Shiva), was built by Somvanshi King Yayati I.

1.4 Key Dynasties of Deccan and South India

Chalukyas of Kalyani (10th-12th century AD)

• Taila II (973-997 AD), the founder of Chalukyas of Kalyani, succeeded the Rashtrakutas, with their capital established in Kalyani (modern Bidar district), Karnataka.
• Vikramaditya VI established the Chalukya-Vikram era in place of the Saka era. He was a patron to eminent scholars like Bilhana, the composer of Vikramanankadevacharita, and Vijnaneshvara, the author of Mitakshara.
• The period marked a notable Chalukya-Chola rivalry, tacitly accepting the Tungabhadra River as the border between the two kingdoms.

Yadavas of Devagiri

• They claimed to have a lineage of the Yadu family of Lord Krishna, and are believed to be an indigenous Maratha group. Bhillama V founded the Yadava kingdom with Devagiri as its capital.
• The last famous ruler of this dynasty was Rama Chandra Deva, who faced invasion by Alauddin Khalji.

Kakatiyas of Warangal (950-1323 AD)

• Originating from an ancient Telugu family, they were feudatories to the Western Chalukyas.
• Important rulers include: Ganapati, Rudramadevi and Pratap Rudra.
• Ganapati, a prominent Kakatiya ruler, centralised power over the Telugu region, emphasizing administrative efficiency and bolstering trade and agriculture.
• Motupalli was the chief port of the Kakatiyas and Venetian traveler Marco Polo visited this port.

Cholas of Thanjavur (later half of 9th-13th century AD)

Rajaraja I (985-1014 AD)

• His era has been compared with Samudraguta in its political significance.
• He constructed the Brihadesvara temple at Thanjavur (known as Rajarajeswara temple after him).
• He also assisted the king of Java in constructing a Buddhist Vihara in Java.

Rajendra I (1014-44 AD)

• He assumed the title of Gangaikonda (conqueror of the Ganges) and founded the city of Gangaikonda Cholapuram after his victory over Mahipala (the king of the Pala dynasty).
• The Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple was built to commemorate his victories in North India.
• He adopted the titles of Mudikonda Cholan (the crowned Chola), Kadaramkondan (conqueror of Kadaram), and Pandita Cholan (scholarly Cholan).
• He conquered Sumatra and promoted trade between the Malaya peninsula and South India. His naval operation was directed against Sri Vijaya kingdom (southern Sumatra), a prominent maritime and commercial state.

Kulottunga I (1070-1122 AD)

• He was the last important Chola ruler who united the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi with the Cholas.
• Initiated administrative reforms, including land surveys.
• Though a Shaivite, he made grants to Buddhist shrines at Nagapattam.

Chola Administration

• The empire was divided into provinces (mandalas), which were further subdivided into valanadus and nadus.
• Chola rulers appointed Brahmins as Rajaguru and, therefore, granted Brahmadeyams (huge estates of tax-exempted land to Brahmins) and Chatur-vedi-mangalams (a tax exempted village for Brahmins).
• Administration was carried out by diverse village assemblies:
  • "Ur" was a village assembly for all landholding classes.
  • "Sabha" was an assembly of Brahmins in Brahmadeya villages.
  • "Nagaram" was an assembly for merchants.

Chola Army

• The army consisted of three conventional divisions: Infantry, Cavalry (Kudirai Sevagar), and Elephant Corps (Anaiyatkal).
• Padaividu - Cantonments, which were established in the capital city.
• Nilaipadai - Military outposts in the conquered territory.
• Dandanayagam - commander-in-chief
• Perundanam - upper rank in the army; Cirudanam - lower rank.
• Velaikkaran - Emperor's personal bodyguards.
• Villaligal - Bowmen; Valilar - Sword-bearers; Konduvar - Spearmen.

Chola Economy

• There was an elaborate "department of land revenue" known as Puravuvari-tinaikkalam.
• The surveyors of the land were called Nadu-vagaiseykira. The tax rates were fixed depending on the fertility of the soil and the status of the landholder.
• Two guild-like groups are known: Anjuvannattar were maritime traders and Manigramattar were traders in the hinterland.

Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra (10th-14th century AD)

• Sala, also known as Nripakama, was the founder of the Hoysala dynasty.
• The dynasty spanned across the districts between the Western Chalukyas and Cholas, eventually extending over much of the former Mysore state.
• Notable rulers included Vishnuvardhan, Ballala II, and Ballala III. Ballala III fought with the armies of the Delhi Sultanate (Khalji and Tughlaq).
• They established their capital at Dwarasamudra. Belur served as a royal residence renowned for splendid Hoysala monuments.
• The Hoysalas were eminent builders. Eg: Hoysalesvara temple at Halebid.

Later Pandyas of Madurai (6th - 10th century AD)

• Pandyas were one of the Muvendars that ruled the southern part of India until pre-modern times.
• Important rulers include: Kadunkon, Sendan, Arikesari Maravarman, Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadayn (Varaguna I) and Maravarman Kulasekharan.

Pandya Administration

• Pandya kings made Madurai their capital which was revered as Kudal and Tamil Kelukudal.
• The king issued royal orders orally. It was documented by a royal scribe called Tirumantira Olai.
• Royal palaces were called Tirumaligai and Manaparanan Tirumaligai.
• Pandy Mandalam or Pandy Nadu consisted of many Valanadus. Valandu were divided into many Nadus and Kurrams. Nadu and Kurram contained settlements, viz., Mangalam, Nagaram, Ur and Kudi, inhabited by different social groups. The administrative authorities of Nadus were the Nattars.
• Mangalam or Chaturvedimangalam were Brahmin settlements with irrigation facilities.

Pandya Economy

• A unique political division in Pandy Mandalam is Kulakkil, i.e., the area under the irrigation tank.
• The Sendan Maran inscription of the Vaigai river bed speaks of a sluice installed by Pandya to distribute the water from the river.
• Land was surveyed using the rods of 14 and 24 feet. Nattar assessed the qualities of land under cultivation to levy tax. [Salabogam - land assigned to Brahmins]
• Traders were referred as Nikamattor, Nanadesi, Ticai-Ayiratu-Ainutruvar, Ainutruvar, Manikiramattar and Patinen-Vishyattar. Teru was the place where the traders lived. Gold coins were used as a medium of trade.
• Horse trade was recorded by Wassaff (Persian historian). Those trading in horses were called Kudirai-Chetti.
• The busiest port town under the Pandyas was Kayalpattinam (Thoothukudi district, Tamil Nadu) on the east coast. Cintamani, Mylapore, Tiruvotriyur, Tiruvadanai and Mahabalipuram were other busy coastal trading centres.

Pandya Religion and Culture

• Pandyas earlier believed in Jainism but later adopted Saivism and Vaishnavism. Pandyas patronised Meenakshi temple.
• Sadaiyavarman Sundarapandyan was anointed in Srirangam temple, and to commemorate it, he donated an idol of Vishnu to the temple.

5. Summary: Early Medieval Dynasties