4.1 Vijayanagara Empire

Foundation and Dynasties

• After asserting their independence from Hoysala rulers (after the death of Ballal III), Harihara and Bukka laid the foundation of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336.
• Vidyaranya, a respected Saiva saint and Sanskrit scholar, is believed to have played a pivotal role in founding the Empire.
• Initially, the capital was near Anegondi (north bank of Tungabhadra), later shifted to Hoysala town, Hosapattana (near Hampi; south bank of Tungabhadra), and renamed Vijayanagara (city of victory). Hampi derived its name from the local mother goddess, Pampadevi.

Rulers and Their Contributions

Sangama Dynasty

Harihara (1336-56 AD)

• Defeated the Hoysala ruler of Mysore and executed him. His brother, Bukka succeeded him.
• He founded a new city on the South bank of a tributary to river Krishna and undertook to rule his new kingdom as the agent of a deity to whom all the land south of the river Krishna was supposed to belong.

Deva Raya I (1404-1422 AD)

• He was defeated by the Bahmani ruler Firuz Shah. Later, he entered into an alliance with Warangal, which changed the balance of power in the Deccan and defeated Firuz Shah Bahmani and annexed the entire Reddi territory up to the mouth of Krishna River.
• He constructed a dam across the Tungabhadra and Hiradra rivers and used canals to counter the shortage of water.
• Nicolo Conti visited Vijaynagar in 1420.

Devaraya II (1422–46 AD)

• Greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty. He defeated the Gajapati rulers of Odisha.
• According to Ferishta (Court Historian of Deccan Sultans), he recruited trained Muslim cavalry and gave archery training to his soldiers.
• Abdur Razaak visited Zamorin of Kochi and the Vijayanagar court during his reign.
• According to Nuniz, the kings of Sri Lanka and Tennasserim (Malay and Burma) paid tribute to him.

Tuluva Dynasty

Krishna Deva Raya (1509–29 AD)

• He was also known as Andhra Bhoj.
• Fought battle on two fronts: Bahmani Sultans (traditional enemy) and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa.
• Acquired the Raichur Doab (1512), subdued rulers of Orissa (1514), and defeated the Sultan of Bijapur (1520).
• Founded a suburban township near Vijayanagar called Nagalapuram, named after his mother.
• He added gopurams to some important temples like Vijay Mahal and Vittala Swamy Temple.
• Foreign visitors Domingo Paes, Fernao Nuniz and Duarte Barbosa praised Krishnadevaraya's character and the opulence of Vijayanagara City.
• He was a gifted scholar of Telugu and Sanskrit. His works include:
• Renowned Telugu poem Amuktamalyada (the story of Andal and a treatise stating the instance of Lord Vishnu in his dream).
• Madalasa Charita, Satyavedu Parinaya, Rasamanjari, Jambavati Kalyanam (Sanskrit)
• Krishna Deva Rayana Dinachari (Kannada)
• He patronised Ashtadiggajas, the eight celebrated poets of Telugu.
• Allasani Peddana (also known as Andhrakavita Pitamaga), his works include: Manucharitam and Harikathasaram.
• Tenali Ramakrishna (Court jester and poet): work includes Panduranga Mahatyam.
• The taxation system of Krishna Deva:
• (1) The tax rate on land was fixed depending on the quality of the land.
• (2) Private owners of workshops paid an industry tax.

Sadasiva Raya (1543-67 AD)

• Real power laid in the hands of his minister Rama Raya, who got support from kinsmen (of Aravidu clan) by appointing them as Nayak of strategic localities.
• Rama Raya was a great warrior and strategist. He fought with the Bijapur ruler. However, later, he allied with Bijapur against Golkonda and Ahmadnagar, all of which eventually led to the Battle of Talikota.

Battle of Talikota (1565 AD)

• The battle was fought at Talikota or Rakshasi-Tangadi in 1565 between Vijayanagar and Deccan states (combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, and Golconda).
• Rama Raya personally commanded the forces; however, he lost the battle and was later executed.
• The victorious Bahmani armies entered Vijayanagar city for the first time in history and ransacked it for several months. This battle is generally considered the signal for the end of Vijayanagar.

Life in Vijayanagara Empire

Administration

• The king was the ultimate authority and was assisted by several high-ranking officers.
• Mahapradhani (Chief minister) who led lower-ranking officers, like Dalavay (commander), Vassal (guard of the palace), Rayasam (secretary/accountant), Adaippam (personal attendant), and Kariya-karta (executive agents).
• Kingdom was divided into Rajyas or Mandalam (provinces), which were further subdivided into Nadu (district), Sthala (sub-district), and Grama (village).
• Rajyas or provinces were governed by a governor called Pradhani.
• Smaller administrative divisions like Nadu, Sima, Sthala, Kampana, etc. with the village as its smallest unit.

Nayaka System

• "Nayak" denotes military chiefs in Telugu and Kannada regions.
• Revenue assigned to Nayaks for military service was present in the Kakatiya kingdom in the 13th century, which was similar to the Iqta system practiced by the Delhi Sultanate.
• Nayaks paid a portion of revenue to the king during the Mahanavami festival.

Amar-Nayak System

• It was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire.
• The Amara-nayakas were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the Raya.
• They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons, and traders in the area. They retained part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants, providing the kings with an effective fighting force.
• Some of the revenue was used for the maintenance of temples and irrigation works.

Social System

• Foreign visitors noted the opulent lifestyles of rulers, officials, and elites in cities like Vijayanagar and Bijapur, contrasting with widespread poverty and the presence of slavery. There was a widening gap between the ruling class and the ruled.
• According to Portuguese writer Nuniz, the women in the Vijayanagara Empire were experts in Wrestling, Astrology, Accounting, and Soothsaying.

Economy

• The tax rate varied according to the type of crops, soil, method of irrigation, etc. In addition to the land taxes, there were various other taxes, such as property tax, taxes on the sale of produce, profession taxes, military contribution (in times of distress), tax on marriage, etc.
• These non-agrarian groups were generally called the Pattadaior (workshop people) and Kasayavargam (the group that pays taxes in cash).
• Local communities of merchants known as Kudirai Chettis (horse merchants) also participated in these exchanges.
• The chief gold coin of the Vijayanagar Empire was the Varaha. The Perta was half a Varaha. Fanam was one-tenth a Perta.

Art and Architecture

• Abdur Razzaq mentioned seven lines of forts in Hampi, which encircled not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests.
• It had its own distinct features which is called the Provida style (having a large number of pillars).
• Elaborate arrangements had been made to store rainwater: Kamalapuram tank, Hiriya canal (water sourced from Tungabhadra, apparently built by kings of the Sangama dynasty). The city had an elaborate canal system drawing water from the Tungabhadra.
• Vijayanagar City was divided into the Sacred Centre and the Royal Centre.
• Mahanavami Dibba:
  • Positioned atop the city's highest point, with indications of supporting a wooden structure.
  • The structure likely featured rituals linked to Mahanavami, a significant day in the ten-day Hindu autumn festival (known as Dussehra in North India).
  • Described as the house of victory by Domingo Paes.
• Hazara Rama temple: Scenes from the Ramayana are sculpted on the inner walls of the shrine.
• Gopurams and mandapas: Raya Gopurams or royal gateways often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines. Kalyan Mandapas, used for divine weddings, was a notable feature of temple construction during this period.
• Virupaksha temple (Shiva Temple): Virupaksha was the guardian deity of the kingdom.
• Vitthala temple (Vishnu Temple): It has several halls and a unique shrine designed as a chariot. A characteristic feature of the temple complex is the chariot street that extends from the temple gopuram in a straight line. It was also famous for Musical pillars.

4.2 Bahmani Kingdom

Foundation and Important Rulers

• In 1345, Zafar Khan declared independence from the Sultanate and took the title Bahaman Shah, inaugurating the Bahmani dynasty.

Bahman Shah (1347–1358 AD)

• In 1345, Bahman Shah (also known as Zafar Khan and Hasan Gangu) declared independence at Devagiri and later shifted his capital to Gulbarga (northern Karnataka).
• He faced challenges from rulers in Warangal, Orissa (Jajnagar), and Vijayanagar. After successful campaigns, he styled himself as the Second Alexander on coins.
• Administratively, he adopted the Delhi Sultanate's structure, dividing his realm into four regions (Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Bidar, and Berar) termed 'Tarafs'.

Mohammed I (1358–1375 AD)

• Attacked Warangal in 1363; captured the fortress of Golkonda and the Turquoise Throne, which subsequently served as the Bahmani kings' royal seat.
• Further, he took measures for the suppression of highway robbery and built two mosques at Gulbarga.

Breakup of Bahmani Sultanate

• The Sultanate gradually broke up into four independent kingdoms:

Ibrahim Adil Shah-II (1580-1627 AD)

• He was the king of Bijapur. He was a good administrator, artist, Poet, and patron of arts.
• He also authored the book 'Kitab-i-Nauras' in Dakhani.
• He was given the title 'Jagadguru' by his Muslim subjects because of his belief in secularism.

Council of Eight Ministers

• Mohammed I appointed a council of eight ministers of state:

Important Monuments

• Gol Gumbad which is said to be the largest dome in the world is situated in Bijapur district of Karnataka. It is the mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah (1626–1656).
• Golkonda Fort:
  • Constructed as a mud fort by Raja Krishna Dev of the Kakatiya dynasty.
  • During 1495–1496, the fort was handed over to Sultan Kali Kutub Khan as a Jagir (land grant).
  • Qutub Shahi dynasty took over and made Golkonda its capital.
  • By the 17th century, Golkonda was famous for the 'Kohinoor' diamond.
  • The Fateh Darwaza (or Victory Gate) is the entrance to the fort.

5. Summary: Vijayanagara and Bahmani Kingdoms