Health and Disease

Health & Disease — PYQs

Figure 1: Health and Disease concepts frequently tested in UPSC examinations.

1. Introduction — Health & Disease Terms in News

• Health and Disease is a dynamic field with rapid medical advancements, frequently featuring in UPSC Prelims.
• This section covers key health and disease terms asked in previous year questions.

KNOWLEDGE NUGGET

• Health: State of complete physical, mental, and social well-being
• Key Areas: Infectious diseases, immunology, genetics, public health, medical technology, vaccines, antimicrobial resistance

2. Health & Disease — Previous Year Questions

2023 — THE WOLBACHIA METHOD

• A biological method to manipulate mosquito populations and hence reduce transmission of mosquito-borne diseases such as Dengue, Zika, Chikungunya, etc.

2022 — B CELLS & T CELLS

• Primary and secondary immune responses are carried out with the help of two types of lymphocytes — B-lymphocytes (B-cells) and T-lymphocytes (T-cells).
• Both B-cells and T-cells are responsible for acquired immunity.
• B-cells: Responsible for antibody-mediated immunity — produce antibodies to fight pathogens in our blood.
• T-cells: Responsible for cell-mediated immunity. T-cells do not secrete antibodies but help B cells produce them.

2022 — PROBIOTICS

• Live microorganisms, primarily bacteria and yeasts, that provide health benefits when consumed in adequate amounts.
• Help balance the gut microbiota, enhancing digestive health and boosting the immune system.
• Commonly found in fermented foods like yogurt, sauerkraut, etc.
• Prebiotics: A group of nutrients that are degraded by gut microbiota.

2022 — HEREDITARY DISEASES

• Health conditions passed from parents to offspring through genes.
• Can be caused by mutations in single genes, combinations of genes, or chromosomal abnormalities.
• Examples: Cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Huntington's disease.

2021 — MITOCHONDRIAL DISEASES

• Caused by defects in the way mitochondria produces energy for the body's cells, like the brain, nerves, muscles, kidneys, heart, and liver.
• These diseases are only passed on by the mother and affect 1 in 5,000 people globally.
• Can impact cell function, leading to muscle weakness, organ failure, and neurological disorders.

2021 — ACE2

• A protein on the surface of many cell types.
• An enzyme that generates small proteins — by cutting up the larger protein angiotensinogen — that then go on to regulate functions in the cell.
• The protein provides the entry point for the coronavirus to hook into and infect a wide range of human cells.

2021 — ADENOVIRUSES

• Medium-sized, non-enveloped viruses with an icosahedral structure containing a double-stranded DNA genome.
• Belong to the Adenoviridae family and can infect various vertebrates, including humans.
• Cause a range of illnesses like cold, fever, sore throat, bronchitis, pneumonia, diarrhea, and pink eye.

2021 — RETROVIRUSES

• Enveloped viruses characterized by their ability to reverse transcribe RNA into DNA and integrate it into the host genome.
• Unique replication process that involves reverse transcription of an infected RNA genome into DNA.
• Known for its role in certain cancers and chronic diseases such as HIV/AIDS.

2021 — RECOMBINANT VECTOR VACCINE

• A sophisticated form of immunization that uses a harmless virus or bacterium to deliver genetic material from a pathogen into cells to stimulate an immune response.
• Allows for strong, targeted defense mechanisms against specific diseases, including COVID-19 and Ebola.

2021 — VECTORS

• Organisms that transmit pathogens from one host to another, often causing infectious diseases.
• Common vectors: Mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas.
• Can carry and spread viruses, bacteria, and parasites to humans and animals without becoming ill themselves.

2020 — PNEUMOCOCCAL CONJUGATE VACCINES (PCV)

• A conjugate vaccine combines a weak antigen with a strong antigen as a carrier so that the immune system has a stronger response to the weak antigen.
• PCV gives prevention against pneumococcal diseases caused by bacteria called Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus).

2019 — Cas9 PROTEIN (Molecular Scissors)

• A key enzyme used in CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) technology for gene editing.
• Acts as molecular scissors that can cut DNA strands at specific locations, allowing for the precise modification of genetic sequences.

2019 — BIOSENSOR

• Bioanalytical systems that can sense biological samples.
• Small, powerful devices capable of analyzing biological samples to understand their function, composition and structure.
• Converts a biological signal or response to a measurable response.

2019 — HEPATITIS B VIRUS (HBV)

• A highly infectious viral pathogen that targets the liver, causing both acute and chronic liver infections.
• Transmitted through contact with infected bodily fluids.
• Chronic HBV can lead to serious conditions such as cirrhosis and liver cancer, emphasizing the importance of vaccination.

2019 — HUMAN IMMUNO VIRUS (HIV)

• A virus that attacks the immune system, specifically the CD4 cells (T cells).
• Untreated, HIV can lead to the disease AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome), where the immune system is severely damaged.

2016 — MYCOVIRUSES

• Viruses that infect fungi.
• The majority of mycoviruses have double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) genomes.

2015 — FUNGAL INOCULUM

• Inoculum: Any part of the pathogen that can initiate infection.
• Inoculation: The initial contact of a pathogen with a site of plant where infection is possible.
• In fungi, the inoculum may be spores, sclerotia, or fragments of mycelium.

2012 — CYTOPLASMIC MALE STERILITY (CMS)

• A condition in plants where the male reproductive parts are unable to produce functional pollen, leading to sterility.
• This trait is maternally inherited and utilized in agriculture to facilitate the production of hybrid seeds, enhancing crop yield and quality.

3. Important Terms in News

ABaucin

• A new antibiotic that effectively targets the resistant Acinetobacter baumannii bacteria.
• Selectively hinders its growth by disrupting the CCR2 protein function, without affecting other Gram-negative bacteria.

BIOSYNTHETIC CLOCKS

• A genetically engineered mechanism that regulates the ageing process in cells, delaying their normal deterioration.
• By manipulating gene regulatory circuits, scientists can create a negative feedback loop, essentially stalling aging by causing cells to oscillate between two ageing pathways without prolonged commitment to either.

BLUE ZONES

• Regions where chronic diseases are less prevalent, and people tend to live longer.
• Factors such as diet, fasting, and exercise are linked with these areas.
• Examples: Italy, Greece, Japan, Costa Rica, Singapore, and the US.

CELLULAR REPROGRAMMING

• Involves usage of specific proteins, called transcription factors, to alter the expression of genes within a cell and direct it to take on a new cellular identity.

CHIMERIC ANTIGEN RECEPTOR (CAR) T-CELL THERAPY

• A type of immunotherapy that uses a patient's own immune cells to fight cancer.
• Patients' cells are modified in the laboratory to activate T-cells to attack tumors.
• These modified cells are then infused back into the patient's bloodstream to allow gradual and sustained killing of tumor cells.
• Also known as 'Living Drugs' as they are more specific than targeted agents and directly activate the patient's immune system against cancer.

COMPASSIONATE USE PROTOCOL

• Allows patients with severe, life-threatening diseases to access investigational medical products (drug, biologic, or medical device) outside clinical trials when no other satisfactory treatments exist.
• Permitted under the WTO's TRIPS (IPR) Agreement during national emergencies, other circumstances of extreme urgency.

COMPULSORY LICENSING (CL)

• The grant of permission by the government to entities to use, manufacture, import, or sell a patented invention without the patent owner's consent.

CERVICAL CANCER

• Most cervical cancers are caused by Human Papillomavirus (HPV), which is a sexually transmitted virus.
• Cervical Cancer is the second most common cancer in Indian women.
• Can be prevented in most cases if HPV vaccine is administered pre-exposure.

CERAVAC — INDIA'S INDIGENOUS HPV VACCINE

• India's first indigenously developed quadrivalent human papillomavirus (qHPV) vaccine designed to prevent cervical cancer.
• Based on VLP (Virus-Like Particles).
• A quadrivalent vaccine stimulates an immune response against four different antigens.

DIALYSIS

• A medical treatment to help individuals with kidney failure filter waste and excess fluid from the blood.
• Hemodialysis (HD-Water Dialysis): Requires an artificial kidney machine to filter blood at a dialysis centre. Blood is filtered through a machine that acts like an artificial kidney and is returned back into the body.
• Peritoneal dialysis (PD-Blood Dialysis): The patient's own blood lining of the abdomen acts as a filter. A solution composed of salts and sugars is injected into the abdomen to facilitate filtration.

DUCHENNE MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY (DMD)

• A genetic disorder characterized by growing muscle degeneration and weakness.
• Condition arises when the DMD gene on the X chromosome mutates, leading to a failure in producing functional dystrophin.
• Dystrophin: A protein crucial for structural integrity in muscle cells.

DNA VACCINES

• Consists of a plasmid (circular DNA molecule) containing the gene from virus/bacteria, which stimulates the immune system upon delivery.
• Puts a specific DNA sequence that codes for an antigen into an organism's cells to trigger an immune response.

EVERGREENING OF PATENTS

• A strategy to extend a patent's lifespan nearing expiration by obtaining new patents, ensuring continued royalties.
• Section 3(d) of the Indian Patent Act 1970 (amended in 2005) does not allow patents to be granted to inventions involving new forms of a known substance unless it differs significantly in properties with regard to efficacy, thus disabling the evergreening of patents.

FIXED DOSE COMBINATION (FDC)

• A pharmaceutical product that contains two or more active ingredients combined in a fixed ratio in a single dosage to improve compliance.
• Commonly used in the treatment of infectious diseases, cardiovascular disorders, diabetes, and asthma.
• Example: Nimesulide, Paracetamol dispersible tablets, etc.

GENERIC DRUGS

• A medication created to be the same as an already marketed brand-name drug in dosage form, safety, strength, route of administration, quality, performance characteristics, and intended use.
• Similarities establish bioequivalence, indicating that a generic medicine functions and offers the same clinical benefits as its brand-name equivalent.

HAVISURE

• India's first indigenously developed Hepatitis A vaccine by Hyderabad-based Indian Immunologicals Ltd (IIL).

HYBRIDOMA TECHNOLOGY

• One of the most common methods used to produce monoclonal antibodies.
• A fusion cell (hybridoma cell) is made up of B cells (white blood cells that produce antibodies) and myeloma cells (abnormal plasma cells).
• These hybrid cells allowed production of a single antibody clone, known as a monoclonal antibody.

MULTIPLE DRUG RESISTANCE (MDR)

• Antimicrobial resistance shown by a species of microorganism to at least one antimicrobial drug in three or more antimicrobial categories.

MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES

• Synthetic proteins designed in labs to emulate the immune system's antibodies, guarding against diseases and foreign entities.
• Generated by extracting specific antibodies from human blood and cloning them to target certain antigens.

mRNA VACCINE

• A vaccine that uses a molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA) rather than part of an actual bacteria or virus.
• Messenger RNA essential for protein production is quickly broken down post use.
• mRNA from vaccines neither enters the nucleus nor alters DNA.

N-NITROSODIMETHYLAMINE (NDMA)

• A yellow, oily, light-sensitive nitrosamine considered a likely human carcinogen.
• Detected in certain foods, beverages, pharmaceuticals and also in environmental sources like water and air.
• Produced in the making of chemicals like pesticides and rubber, and in water treatment with chloramines. Also formed in the stomach on digestion of certain foods.

POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME (PCOS)

• A multifactorial endocrine disorder characterized by chronic anovulation, irregular periods, hirsutism, and weight gain.
• A leading cause of infertility globally.
• Genetics, neuroendocrine system, sedentary lifestyle, diet, and obesity are the major risk factors.

PSYCHEDELIC SUBSTANCES

• A group of drugs that alter perception, mood, and thought processing while a person is still clearly conscious.
• Example: Ketamine.
• They are non-addictive, non-toxic and compared to illicit drugs, they are less harmful.
• The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 prohibits the use of psychedelic substances.

TRANS FAT

• A type of unsaturated fat that is created when hydrogen is added to liquid vegetable oil through the process of hydrogenation to convert it into a solid fat at room temperature.
• Increases the shelf life and stability of foods that contain it.
• Also occurs naturally in food products from ruminant animals (e.g., milk, butter, cheese, meat products).

XENOTRANSPLANTATION

• Refers to the transplantation of living cells, tissues, or organs from one species to another, typically from animals to humans.
• Aims to address the shortage of human organs available for transplantation.

ZOONOTIC DISEASES (Zoonosis)

• Conditions that can be passed from animals to humans.
• These infections are caused by germs, such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, and fungi.
• Examples: Rabies, Anthrax, Brucellosis, Plague, Tuberculosis, Leptospirosis, and Salmonellosis.

4. Summary: Health & Disease PYQs at a Glance

Year	Term	Key Description
2023	Wolbachia Method	Biological method to manipulate mosquito populations; reduces Dengue, Zika, Chikungunya
2022	B Cells & T Cells	Lymphocytes responsible for acquired immunity; B-cells (antibody-mediated), T-cells (cell-mediated)
2022	Probiotics	Live microorganisms; balance gut microbiota; found in fermented foods
2021	Mitochondrial Diseases	Defects in mitochondria energy production; only passed on by mother
2021	ACE2	Protein on cell surface; entry point for coronavirus
2021	Adenoviruses	Non-enveloped, double-stranded DNA viruses; cause cold, fever, bronchitis
2021	Retroviruses	Reverse transcribe RNA into DNA; HIV/AIDS
2021	Recombinant Vector Vaccine	Uses harmless virus/bacterium to deliver genetic material; COVID-19, Ebola
2020	Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine	Combines weak and strong antigens; prevents pneumococcal diseases
2019	Cas9 Protein	Molecular scissors in CRISPR gene editing; cuts DNA at specific locations
2019	Biosensor	Bioanalytical systems; converts biological signal to measurable response
2019	Hepatitis B Virus	Infects liver; transmitted through bodily fluids; can lead to cirrhosis and liver cancer
2016	Mycoviruses	Viruses that infect fungi; mostly double-stranded RNA genomes
2012	Cytoplasmic Male Sterility (CMS)	Maternally inherited plant sterility; used for hybrid seed production

Key Takeaways for UPSC

• Wolbachia Method: Biological mosquito control — reduces Dengue, Zika, Chikungunya
• B Cells & T Cells: Acquired immunity — B-cells (antibodies), T-cells (cell-mediated)
• ACE2: Coronavirus entry point into human cells
• Cas9: Molecular scissors in CRISPR gene editing
• CAR T-cell Therapy: Living drugs — immunotherapy for cancer
• Cervavac: India's indigenous HPV vaccine — quadrivalent, VLP-based
• mRNA Vaccine: Uses messenger RNA — does not enter nucleus or alter DNA
• Section 3(d) Indian Patent Act: Prevents evergreening of patents — requires significant efficacy improvement
• Compulsory Licensing: Government permission to use patented invention without consent
• Xenotransplantation: Animal to human organ transplantation
• Zoonotic Diseases: Animal to human transmission — Rabies, Anthrax, Brucellosis

High-Yield Interactive UPSC Quiz (Health & Disease)

Q1. The Wolbachia Method is used to control:

Correct Answer: C. The Wolbachia Method is a biological method to manipulate mosquito populations and reduce transmission of mosquito-borne diseases such as Dengue, Zika, and Chikungunya.

Q2. B-cells are responsible for which type of immunity?

Correct Answer: B. B-cells are responsible for antibody-mediated immunity response. They produce antibodies to fight pathogens in our blood.

Q3. ACE2 protein provides the entry point for which virus?

Correct Answer: C. ACE2 is a protein on the surface of many cell types that provides the entry point for the coronavirus to hook into and infect human cells.

Q4. Cas9 protein is used in which technology?

Correct Answer: B. Cas9 protein is a key enzyme used in CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) technology for gene editing. It acts as molecular scissors that cut DNA strands at specific locations.

Q5. CAR T-cell therapy is also known as:

Correct Answer: B. CAR-T cell therapy is also known as 'Living Drugs' as they are more specific than targeted agents and directly activate the patient's immune system against cancer.

Q6. Cervavac is India's indigenous vaccine for:

Correct Answer: C. Cervavac is India's first indigenously developed quadrivalent human papillomavirus (qHPV) vaccine designed to prevent cervical cancer.

Q7. Section 3(d) of the Indian Patent Act 1970 prevents:

Correct Answer: B. Section 3(d) of the Indian Patent Act 1970 does not allow patents for new forms of a known substance unless it differs significantly in efficacy, thus preventing evergreening of patents.

Q8. mRNA vaccines do NOT:

Correct Answer: C. mRNA from vaccines neither enters the nucleus nor alters DNA. It is quickly broken down post use.

Q9. Hybridoma Technology is used to produce:

Correct Answer: C. Hybridoma Technology is one of the most common methods used to produce monoclonal antibodies by fusing B cells with myeloma cells.

Q10. Xenotransplantation involves transplantation from:

Correct Answer: C. Xenotransplantation refers to the transplantation of living cells, tissues, or organs from one species to another, typically from animals to humans.