Environment and Ecology — Climate Change (Part 2)
1. IPCC Reports
Context: The IPCC released its 6th Synthesis Report, summarising its sixth assessment cycle. The IPCC is currently in its Seventh Assessment cycle (AR7).
- IPCC Assessment Reports: Comprehensive reports on climate change, its causes, potential impacts, and response options.
- The IPCC uses 'modelled pathways' drawn using Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs) to estimate what it will take to limit the warming of the earth's surface.
- IPCC reports comprise three Working Group reports: Physical science, Climate adaptation & Mitigation action.
About IPCC:
- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change — the UN body in charge of examining climate change science.
- Established: 1988 by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and UNEP.
- Secretariat: Geneva, Switzerland.
- Member states: 195 member states, including India.
2. Emissions Gap Report 2024
Context: UNEP released the Emissions Gap Report 2024 ahead of COP29 in Baku, Azerbaijan.
- Released By: UNEP
- Record-High Emissions: Global emissions peaked in 2023, rising by 1.3%.
- G20 Dominance: G20 countries account for 77% of emissions; least developed countries contribute only 3%.
- Paris Agreement Goals: 42% emissions reduction needed by 2030 to limit warming to 1.5°C; 28% for 2°C.
- Sectoral Emissions: Power sector emitted 15.1 billion tonnes CO₂; transport contributed 8.4 billion tonnes; aviation emissions surged 19.5% post-pandemic.
- Opportunities: Renewable energy (solar and wind) could cut emissions by 27% by 2030.
- Per Capita Emissions:
- India: 2.9 tCO₂e (2022)
- China: 11 tCO₂e
- USA: 18 tCO₂e
- Global average: 6.6 tCO₂e
- Cost of Bridging the Gap: Achieving net-zero by 2050 requires USD 900 billion to USD 2.1 trillion annually, about 1% of global GDP.
Key Point: India's per capita GHG emissions (2.9 tCO₂e) are significantly lower than China (11 tCO₂e) and the US (18 tCO₂e).
3. Adaptation Gap Report 2024
Context: UNEP released the Adaptation Gap Report 2024: "Come Hell and High Water".
- Global average temperature rise will likely exceed 2.6°C by 2100 based on current emissions trends.
- Developing countries need $387 billion/year for adaptation, but only $28 billion was funded in 2022.
- National adaptation plans exist for 171 countries, but implementation is slow.
- Adaptation Finance Gap: Current funding (2022) meets just 5% of the projected needs under the Glasgow Climate Pact.
- Glasgow Climate Pact aims to reduce methane emissions by at least 30% below 2020 levels by 2030.
- UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience (UAE-FGCR): Introduced at COP28; sets dimensional and thematic targets for adaptation.
4. Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI) 2025
Context: India ranked 10th in the CCPI 2025 report.
- Released By: Germanwatch, New Climate Institute, & Climate Action Network International.
- Criteria: Four categories with 14 indicators:
- Greenhouse Gas Emissions (40% of score)
- Renewable Energy (20%)
- Top Performers: First three ranks are vacant; followed by Denmark (4th), Netherlands (5th), & UK (6th).
- India's Performance: Ranked 10th; per capita emissions: 2.9 tCO₂e (below global average of 6.6).
- Assessment: Covers 63 countries + EU, responsible for 90% of global emissions.
Key Point: India ranks 10th in CCPI 2025, with per capita emissions of 2.9 tCO₂e — far below the global average of 6.6 tCO₂e.
5. Bonn Climate Change Conference
Context: The Bonn Climate Change Conference concluded with the release of an input paper on the New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) on climate finance.
- NCQG: Revised target to mobilize over $100 billion in climate finance for the post-2025 period, to be finalized at COP29.
- Background (2009): Developed countries committed to mobilising $100 billion annually by 2020 — extended to 2025.
- India's Proposal: At least $1 trillion annually post-2025.
- Arab Countries: Proposed $1.1 trillion.
- African Countries: Demanded $1.3 trillion.
Key Point: India has proposed that developed countries commit to at least $1 trillion annually post-2025 for climate finance.
6. Climate Finance
Context: Climate finance refers to local, national, or transnational financing drawn from public, private, and alternative sources to support mitigation and adaptation actions.
- Principle: "Common but differentiated responsibility and respective capabilities" — developed countries provide financial resources to assist developing countries.
- Purpose: Mitigation and Adaptation.
Financial Mechanisms
- Global Environment Facility (GEF): Operating entity of the financial mechanism since 1994.
- Green Climate Fund (GCF): Established at COP16 in 2010.
- Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) & Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF): Managed by GEF.
- Adaptation Fund (AF): Established under the Kyoto Protocol in 2001.
About UNFCCC:
- Established in 1992
- Membership: 195 Parties
- Parent treaty to the Paris Agreement (2015) and Kyoto Protocol (1997)
7. Carbon Pricing
Context: State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2024 Report released by the World Bank.
- Carbon Pricing: Mechanism that assigns a cost to greenhouse gas emissions, typically through CO₂ pricing systems.
- CP Revenue Milestone: In 2023, carbon pricing revenues exceeded $100 billion for the first time.
- Global CP Coverage: 75 global carbon pricing instruments cover approximately 24% of the world's emissions.
- Top Carbon Credit Issuers: China and India are the leading nations in carbon credit issuance.
Main Types of Carbon Pricing
- Emissions Trading System (ETS): Allows emitters to trade emission units to meet targets (cap-and-trade and baseline-and-credit systems).
- Carbon Tax: Directly sets a price per unit of greenhouse gas emissions or carbon content.
Benefits of Carbon Pricing
- Holds polluters accountable
- Drives clean technology investment and innovation
- Supports emissions pathways for limiting global warming to below 2°C/1.5°C
8. Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM)
Context: India and Japan are planning to establish a Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM) for carbon trading and carbon credit adjustment.
- Purpose: Designed to work with developing countries to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
- Shared Contribution: Emission reductions achieved are recognized as contributions by both partner countries and Japan.
- Objectives: Technology and Infrastructure Diffusion, GHG Reduction and Sustainable Development, Achieving NDCs.
Carbon Credit
- Permits that allow the owner to emit a specific amount of carbon dioxide or other GHGs.
- Measurement: One credit = one ton of carbon dioxide equivalent.
- Alternative Name: Carbon offsets.
Difference between Compliance-based and Voluntary Carbon Credit Trading
- Compliance-based: Set by governing body; mandatory participation; companies must buy credits to stay under limit.
- Voluntary: No pre-set limits; optional participation; companies buy credits to offset emissions due to sustainability goals.
9. Teal Carbon
Context: India's first 'teal carbon' study undertaken at Keoladeo National Park (KNP), Bharatpur, Rajasthan.
- Definition: Carbon stored in non-tidal freshwater wetlands, including carbon sequestered in vegetation, microbial biomass, and dissolved or particulate organic matter.
- Significance: Plays a crucial role in increasing groundwater levels, mitigating floods, and reducing heat islands.
- Key Finding: Preliminary results revealed elevated levels of methane emissions, requiring reduction through a specialised type of biochar.
Types of Carbon
- Black Carbon: Sooty black material from burning fossil fuels.
- Brown Carbon: From incomplete combustion of organic materials (biomass).
- Blue Carbon: Carbon stored in coastal and marine ecosystems (mangroves).
- Green Carbon: Carbon sequestered in terrestrial plants through photosynthesis.
- Grey Carbon: Emitted from industrial processes and stored in fossil fuels.
- Red Carbon: Released by biological particles on snow and ice.
About Keoladeo National Park:
- Declared a national park in 1982 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985.
- Home to over 370 species of birds and animals.
- Placed on the Montreux Record (Ramsar Convention) in 1990 due to water shortage and unbalanced grazing.
10. Loss and Damage Fund
Context: Established at the 2022 UNFCCC Conference (COP27) in Egypt to provide financial support to regions suffering economic and non-economic losses caused by climate change.
- Aim: Provide financial support to regions suffering both economic and non-economic losses caused by climate change.
- Based on the Polluters Pay Principle: Holds accountable entities responsible for environmental damage.
- Interim Host: World Bank serves as the interim host for four years.
- Eligibility: Developing nations can apply; specific allocation for Least Developed Countries and Small Island Developing States.
11. Global Environment Facility (GEF)
Context: The 67th Council Meeting of GEF was convened in Washington, DC.
- Establishment: 1991 Rio Earth Summit.
- Comprises: 18 agencies working with 183 countries.
- Financial mechanism for:
- Minamata Convention on Mercury
- Stockholm Convention on POPs
- UN Convention on Biological Diversity
- UN Convention to Combat Desertification
- UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
- India's Role: India has formed a permanent constituency in the Executive Council of GEF together with Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal, and Maldives. India is both a donor and a recipient of GEF.
67th Council Meeting Allocations
- Total: $736.4 million
- GEF Trust Fund: $495.6 million
- Global Biodiversity Framework Fund (GBFF): $37.8 million
- LDCF/SCCF: $203 million (14 climate adaptation initiatives)
12. Food Recovery to Avoid Methane Emissions (FRAME)
Context: FRAME shows that each food bank cuts GHG emissions equal to removing 900 gasoline cars from the road for a year.
- Developed by: Global Food Banking Network (GFN), Global Methane Hub, and the Carbon Trust.
- Purpose: Measures emissions avoided by redirecting food waste for human consumption.
- First trial: Mexico and Ecuador with six community-run food banks.
About Food Bank
- Non-profit organisation providing food to people struggling to afford enough food.
- In 2019, food banks globally prevented over 12 million tonnes of CO₂ emissions, saved 75 million tonnes of surplus food from landfills, and served over 66 million people.
13. EU Climate Goals
EU Sets New Climate Goal for 2040
- Proposed to reduce greenhouse gas net emissions by 90% compared to 1990 levels.
- 2030 Climate Target: Reduce net GHG emissions by at least 55% relative to 1990 levels.
- EU Climate Law (2021): Includes 55% reduction target and carbon neutrality by 2050.
- Fit for 55 Package: Released in 2021 to support these ambitious goals.
Climate-Focused Policies of the EU
- Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM): Regulates trade to tackle climate change.
- Green Deal Industrial Plan (2022): Includes Net Zero Industry Act and Critical Raw Materials Act.
- Net Zero Industry Act (NZIA): Supports production of renewable energy, energy storage, and electric grids.
14. Summary: Climate Change — Key Concepts at a Glance
| Concept/Report | Key Detail |
|---|---|
| IPCC | Est. 1988; 195 members; 6th Synthesis Report; AR7 ongoing |
| Emissions Gap Report 2024 | UNEP; 42% reduction needed by 2030 for 1.5°C |
| Adaptation Gap Report 2024 | $387B needed/year; only $28B funded in 2022 |
| CCPI 2025 | India ranked 10th; per capita: 2.9 tCO₂e |
| Carbon Pricing | $100B revenue in 2023; 75 instruments cover 24% emissions |
| Teal Carbon | Carbon in non-tidal freshwater wetlands; Keoladeo NP study |
| Loss and Damage Fund | COP27; World Bank interim host (4 years) |
| GEF | Est. 1991; India both donor and recipient |
| EU 2040 Target | 90% reduction from 1990 levels |
Key Takeaways for UPSC
- IPCC: Est. 1988 (WMO + UNEP); 195 members; AR7 ongoing
- Emissions Gap Report 2024 (UNEP): 42% reduction by 2030 for 1.5°C; India per capita: 2.9 tCO₂e
- Adaptation Gap Report 2024 (UNEP): $387B needed/year; Glasgow Climate Pact (30% methane reduction by 2030)
- CCPI 2025: India ranked 10th; first 3 ranks vacant
- Carbon Pricing: $100B revenue (2023); China and India top carbon credit issuers
- Teal Carbon: First study at Keoladeo NP (Rajasthan); carbon in non-tidal freshwater wetlands
- Loss and Damage Fund: COP27; World Bank interim host; Polluters Pay Principle
- GEF: Est. 1991; India both donor and recipient; permanent constituency
- EU 2040: 90% reduction from 1990 levels; Fit for 55 package
- JCM: India-Japan carbon trading mechanism
High-Yield Interactive UPSC Quiz (Climate Change — Part 2)
Q1. The IPCC was established in which year?
Correct Answer: C. The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Q2. What is India's per capita GHG emissions according to the Emissions Gap Report 2024?
Correct Answer: C. India's per capita GHG emissions in 2022 were 2.9 tCO₂e, significantly lower than China (11 tCO₂e) and the US (18 tCO₂e).
Q3. According to the Adaptation Gap Report 2024, developing countries need how much annually for adaptation?
Correct Answer: C. Developing countries need $387 billion/year for adaptation, but only $28 billion was funded in 2022.
Q4. India ranked which position in the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI) 2025?
Correct Answer: C. India ranked 10th in the CCPI 2025 report, with per capita emissions of 2.9 tCO₂e.
Q5. The Loss and Damage Fund was established at which COP?
Correct Answer: B. The Loss and Damage Fund was established at COP27 in Egypt in 2022. The World Bank serves as interim host for four years.
Q6. Which organization released the State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2024 Report?
Correct Answer: C. The State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2024 Report was released by the World Bank.
Q7. India's first 'teal carbon' study was undertaken at which national park?
Correct Answer: C. India's first 'teal carbon' study was undertaken at Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur, Rajasthan), which is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Q8. The GEF (Global Environment Facility) was established in which year?
Correct Answer: C. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) was established in 1991 at the Rio Earth Summit. India is both a donor and a recipient of GEF.
Q9. The Glasgow Climate Pact aims to reduce methane emissions by what percentage by 2030?
Correct Answer: C. The Glasgow Climate Pact aims to reduce methane emissions by at least 30% below 2020 levels by 2030.
Q10. What is the EU's proposed 2040 climate target?
Correct Answer: C. The EU proposed a 2040 target to reduce greenhouse gas net emissions by 90% compared to 1990 levels. The EU Climate Law (2021) also includes carbon neutrality by 2050.