1. Civil and Militant Uprisings

Sanyasi Revolt (1763-1800) [Bihar & Bengal]

• A revolt by the Sanyasis and Sadhus in Bengal.
• Characterized by the equal participation of Hindus and Muslims.
• Also known as the Fakir Rebellion. They raided Company factories and the treasuries and fought the Company's forces.
• Causes: The 1770 Bengal famine and harsh British economic policies.
• Leaders: Majnum Shah, Chirag Ali, Musa Shah, Bhawani Pathak, Debi Chaudharani.
• Anandmath and Debi Chaudhrani are written by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay on Sanyasi Revolt.

Revolt of Moamarias (1769-99) [Assam]

• A major uprising in the Ahom Kingdom of Assam, led by the Moamarias who are low caste peasants followed the teachings of Aniruddhadeva.
• Cause: Fueled by religious persecution, economic exploitation, and the oppressive policies of the Ahom rulers towards the Moamarias (primarily peasants and lower-caste groups).
• Outcome: The rebellion severely weakened the Ahom Kingdom, leading to internal chaos, political instability, and the eventual decline of Ahom power. It also paved the way for Burmese invasions and later British intervention in Assam.
• The Moamarias made Bhatiapar their headquarters.

Poligar's Revolt (1795–1805) [Tamil Nadu]

• Major Centres: Anti-British resistance in Tinneveli, Ramanathapuram, Sivaganga, Madurai, and North Arcot.
• Reason: Resentment after Nawab of Arcot ceded Tinneveli and Carnatic to the East India Company in 1781, undermining poligars' autonomy.
• First Phase (1795-1799): Led by Kattabomman Nayakan, revolt over taxation and political rights; Kattabomman captured and executed after betrayal.
• Second Phase (1801): Escaped poligars led violent rebellion, seized forts, and allied with Marudus; suppressed by British reinforcements.
• Consequence: Rebellion crushed by 1801; rebel leaders exiled or granted allowances, ending poligars' resistance.
• In the following years, the poligars of North Arcot rebelled in response to being deprived of their right to collect kaval fees (an ancient village police institution).

Awadh Civil Rebellion (1799) [Eastern UP]

• Participants: Zamindars and peasants.
• Cause: British interference in Awadh's traditional administrative setup.
• Response: Suppressed by British military.
• Outcome: Awadh's local control diminished under British influence.

Vellore Mutiny (1806) [Tamil Nadu]

• Participants: Indian sepoys.
• Cause: British military dress code perceived as religious insult, banning traditional attire.
• Response: Mutiny suppressed; British withdrew the dress code.
• Outcome: Led to sensitivity in British policies regarding Indian religious practices.

Paika Rebellion (1817) [Odisha]

• Paikas were the hereditary traditional landed militia (foot soldiers) of Odisha who rendered martial services and policing functions in return for rent-free land (Nishkar Jagirs).
• It was also known as the Khurda Rebellion.
• Causes:
  • Walter Ewer Commission recommended that the rent-free lands of Paikas be taken over by the British. This led to Paikas taking up arms in support of zamindars and peasants.
  • Rise in the price of salt, abolition of Cowrie currency, payment of taxes in silver, and extortionist land revenue policies.
• Leaders: Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar, Mukunda Deva, and Dinabandhu Santra.
• Used Guerrilla Warfare to fight the British - The rebellion was brutally repressed by 1818.

Waghera Uprising (1818-1820) [Gujarat]

• Leader: Waghera chieftains.
• Cause: Economic exploitation + annexation policies triggered the rebellion.
• Response: Ended with a peace treaty.
• Outcome: Set a precedent for negotiated solutions to conflicts involving local rulers.

Ahom Revolt (1828) [Assam]

• Cause: The British did not withdraw from Assam after the First Burma War (1824-26) and tried to incorporate Ahom territories, causing resentment among the people.
• The Britishers followed a conciliatory policy, and upper Assam was handed over to Maharaja Purandar Singh (Ahom King).
• Leaders: Gomdhar Konwar (Ahom Prince), Maharaja Purandhar Singh, Narendra Gadadhar Singh, among others.

Kuka Movement (1840–72) [Punjab]

• The Kuka Movement, also known as the Namdhari Movement, was initiated in 1840 by Bhagat Jawahar Mal (also known as Sian Saheb) in western Punjab.
• Initially, it was a socio-religious reform movement that aimed to eradicate social evils such as caste discrimination, promote inter-caste marriages, and encourage widow remarriage.
• It also emphasized a return to Sikhism's core principles, rejecting rituals and practices that had crept into the faith over time.
• After the British annexation of Punjab in 1849, the movement underwent a significant transformation, shifting its focus from religious and social reform to a political campaign against British rule.
• The Kukas, under the leadership of Baba Ram Singh, became actively involved in anti-colonial activities, including boycotting British goods, services, and institutions.
• Baba Ram Singh (founder of the Namdhari Sect), was eventually arrested and deported to Rangoon (Burma) in 1872, marking a major blow to the movement.

Revolt of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (1797-1805) [Kerala]

• Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, also known as the "Kerala Simham" or 'Pyche Raja', was the de facto head of Kottayam in the Malabar region.
• The Third Anglo-Mysore War resulted in British control over Kottayam. The British appointed Vira Varma as the Raja, who imposed exorbitant taxes, leading to mass peasant resistance, led by Pyche Raja in 1793.

Revolt of Diwan Velu Thampi (1808–09) [Travancore]

• Harsh conditions in Travancore following a subsidiary alliance agreement (1805) with Wellesley led to resentment in the region.
• The high-handed attitude of the Company led Prime Minister Velu Thampi to rebel against them, with support from Nair troops.
• He openly called for armed resistance against the British in the Kundara Proclamation, sparking widespread rebellion.
• A large-scale military operation was necessary to restore peace as the Maharaja of Travancore defected to the Company's side.

Satara Revolt (1840, Maharashtra)

• Leaders: Dhar Rao Pawar, Narasingh Petkar.
• Cause: Deposition of Chhatrapati Pratapsingh by the British.
• Response: Suppression by British.
• Outcome: Fuelled Maratha resentment and resistance against British policies.

2. Peasant Movements

Narkelberia Uprising (1782-1831) [Bengal]

• Leader: Mir Nithar Ali (Titu Mir).
• First armed peasant uprising against British.
• Inspired Muslim tenants to rise against landlords and British indigo planters.
• Evolved into Wahabi Movement.

Pagal Panthis (1825-1835) [North East India]

• Semi-religious group in Mymensingh district; Hajong and Garo tribes.
• Founder: Karam Shah.
• Leader: Karam Shah's son Tipu — organized resistance against zamindars.
• Government introduced equitable arrangement but violently suppressed.

Moplah Uprisings (1836-1854) [Malabar]

• Twenty-two rebellions took place during these years.
• Causes: High revenue demand, reduction of field size, oppression by British officials.
• Note: The Second Moplah Uprising occurred in 1921.

Indigo Revolt (1859-60) [Bengal]

• Leaders: Bishnucharan Biswas and Digambar Biswas (Biswas brothers) of Nadia, Rafique Mondal of Malda and Kader Molla of Pabna.
• Cause: Peasant resistance against coerced indigo cultivation for European planters. Exploitation through fraudulent contracts, coercion, and threats.
• Nature: Peasants attacked indigo factories with spears and swords. Physical and economic resistance, including rent strikes.
• Outcome: British response: Indigo Commission (1860) to address abuses. Victory for peasants, as indigo cultivation declined by 1860.
• Cultural Impact: Neel Darpan (1860) by Dinabandhu Mitra, and articles in The Hindu Patriot by Harish Chandra Mukherjee raised awareness of the peasants' plight.
• Indigo cultivation in India declined by the beginning of the 20th century because of its unprofitability in the market because of new inventions like improved versions of chemical colours that substitute indigo. (UPSC 2020)

Deccan Peasants' Uprising (1875) [Poona, Satara and Ahmednagar]

• Cause: Ryotwari system's exploitation of peasants, favouring moneylenders (Vanis) over cultivators (Kunbis). High taxation, increased land revenue, and economic hardships (e.g., cotton price collapse, poor harvests). Peasants' resistance to oppressive debt contracts and mortgage bonds.
• Nature: Social boycott of moneylenders, particularly Marwari and Gujarati outsiders. Violent attacks on moneylenders' homes and shops; destruction of debt bonds. Spread across Poona, Ahmednagar, Sholapur, and Satara.
• Outcome: Government repression and eventual passing of the Deccan Agriculturists Relief Act (1879) to protect peasants. Support from Maharashtra's intelligentsia for the peasant cause.

Pabna Movement (1873-1876) [Pabna, East Bengal]

• Leaders: Shah Chandra Roy, Shambhu Nath Pal, Khodi Mollah.
• Causes: Illegal property seizure, arbitrary rent hikes, and coercive eviction tactics by zamindars. Exploitation of tenants despite Act X of 1859, which granted immunity from eviction. Oppression through forcible evictions, crop seizures, and prolonged litigation.
• Nature: Formation of Agrarian League (1873) in Yusufshahi Pargana, aimed at organising rent strikes, raising funds for legal battles, and holding mass meetings. Armed resistance and legal challenges against oppressive zamindar practices.
• Outcome: Government military suppression of the movement. Bengal Tenancy Act (1885) passed, offering legislative protection for tenants. Intellectual support from figures like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, R.C. Dutt, and the Indian Association under Surendra Nath Banerjee.

The Kisan Sabha Movement (1918–1921) [Awadh, Uttar Pradesh]

• Background: After the 1857 revolt, Awadh taluqdars regained control and imposed high rents and oppressive practices. The Home Rule Movement and activists like Gauri Shankar Mishra and Indra Narayan Dwivedi led the formation of Kisan Sabhas in Uttar Pradesh.
• Nature: The United Provinces Kisan Sabha was established in February 1918, with support from Madan Mohan Malaviya. By June 1919, the Sabha had expanded to 450 branches.
• Awadh Kisan Sabha (1920): The movement urged peasants to refuse to till bedakhali land, not to offer unpaid labour, and to resolve disputes through panchayats. Repression by the government led to the decline of the movement, and the Awadh Rent (Amendment) Act further contributed to its end.

Eka Movement (1921) [Awadh, Uttar Pradesh]

• Leaders: Madari Pasi and Baba Ramchandra.
• Cause: Economic distress caused by high rents, forced labour, and corruption by intermediaries like thekedars. The movement was sparked by drought, food shortages, and the effects of the Spanish flu.
• Nature: Initially aligned with Congress and Khilafat campaigns, the movement followed Gandhian principles of social boycotts, picketing, and peaceful protests. As the movement became more militant, Congress and Khilafat leaders distanced themselves, and it became independent.
• Outcome: Repression by authorities led to the Movement's collapse by March 1922.

All India Kisan Sabha (1936) [Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh]

• Formed at Lucknow Session of Indian National Congress (INC).
• Leaders: Swami Sahajananda Saraswati (UPSC 2019).
• Cause: Formation of Kisan Sabhas to protect tenants' rights and advocate for the abolition of zamindari.
• Key Events:
  • 1936: The All India Kisan Sabha was established to address the plight of peasants.
  • Called for the abolition of zamindari and the recognition of tenants' occupancy rights.
  • Kisan Sabha organised nationwide movements and led to key agrarian reforms after the 1937 elections, such as fixing interest rates, reducing rent increases, granting tenant status in UP, and restoring bakhast lands in Bihar.

Tebhaga Movement (1946–47) [Bengal]

• Cause: Sharecroppers' demand for a fair redistribution of the harvest, seeking a two-thirds share for themselves and one-third for landlords. (UPSC 2013)
• Key Participants: Poor peasants, bargadars (sharecroppers), and peasants' organisations.
• Key Events: 1946: The Bengal Provincial Kisan Sabha advocated for the implementation of Tebhaga on the basis of the Flood Commission report.
• Outcome: 40% of peasants gained the two-thirds share; however, the movement faced repression and limited success in East Bengal.

Telangana Insurrection (1946-51) [Hyderabad]

• Cause: The exploitation of peasants by Jagirdars and Deshmukhs (landlords) under the Nizam's rule, alongside oppressive economic policies like forced labour (Vetti) and high taxes.
• Key Events:
  • 1940: The formation of Jagir Ryotu Sangham to address peasant issues.
  • 1946: A guerrilla-style armed struggle emerged, supported by the CPI, with attacks on landlords and Razakars (Nizam's stormtroopers).
• Outcomes: The movement led to abolition of Vetti, land distribution, and debt settlement.

3. Tribal Revolts

Pahariyas Rebellion (1778) [Raj Mahal Hills]

• The Pahariyas, a community of hill dwellers living near the Rajmahal Hills, sustained themselves through forest produce and shifting cultivation. Their geographical isolation allowed them to maintain a significant degree of independence from external powers.
• In the late 18th century, tensions arose when the British promoted settled agriculture in the region, disrupting the Pahariyas' traditional way of life. This led to increased Pahariya raids on settled areas. In the 1770s, the British responded with violent attacks against the Pahariyas, which sparked a rebellion in 1778 led by Raja Jagganath.
• By the 1780s, the British adopted a policy of pacification, offering annual allowances to Pahariya chiefs in exchange for their cooperation and ensuring proper conduct. This marked a shift from outright conflict to a more strategic approach to control the region.

Revolt of Tilka Manjhi (1771-1784) [Santhal Pargana]

• Tilka Majhi (Jabra Paharia) led a revolt in the Pargana against British policies, particularly opposing the divide-and-rule strategy.
• Operating around Sultanganj, Tilka targeted East India Company boats along the Ganga, looting the British treasury and sharing the spoils with the poor.
• He organized guerrilla warfare, also involving Santhal women. In 1778, Tilka, along with Paharia Sardars, captured the Ramgarh Camp, and in 1784, he led an attack on Bhagalpur, allegedly shooting the British magistrate Augustus Cleveland.

Jungle Mahal Revolt or Chuar Uprisings (1776-1772, 1795-1816) [Chota Nagpur]

• Causes: Hike in revenue imposed on jungle zamindars, aggravated by British instructions to demolish mud forts in 1767. Between Chota Nagpur and the plains of Bengal (Parganas in Birbhum, Bankura, and Midnapore).
• In 1768, Ghatsila's zamindar, Jagannath Singh, and thousands of Chuar followers rebelled, leading to the capitulation of the Company government. In 1771, Chuar sardars Shyam Ganjan, Subla Singh, and Dubraj rose in rebellion, but it was subsequently suppressed.
• The most significant Chuar uprising occurred in 1798 under Durjan Singh, prompted by discontent with East India Company policies, including the Permanent Settlement and changes in police regulations.

Santhal Rebellion (1855-56) [Bihar]

• Background: In the late 18th century, the Santhals migrated to the Rajmahal Hills for settled agriculture, leading to conflicts with the Pahariyas, who practiced shifting cultivation. The British resolved this by creating Daman-i-Koh, allocating foothill land to the Santhals for settlement.
• Causes: Heavy taxes levied by the Company government under the Permanent Settlement Act of 1793; High interest charged on borrowings by diku (outsider) moneylenders. This led to the Santhals losing their land over time, i.e., the zamindars were taking over the Damin tracts.
• The rebellion soon turned into a movement against the British colonial state. The Santhals called the rebellion 'hul', meaning a movement for liberation.
• Led by Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu to end Company Rule and carve out an autonomous territory.
• Post the revolt, the Santhal Pargana was created out of the districts of Bhagalpur and Birbhum with special laws for tribals. It became illegal for a Santhal to transfer land to a non-Santhal. British Government enacted laws so that the lands of tribals could not be taken by outsiders (dikus). (UPSC 2018)

Munda Revolt (1890s-1901) [Singhbhum & Ranchi]

• Also known as 'The Ulgulan' (Great Tumult) (UPSC 2020).
• The aim was to establish an independent Munda Raj with religious and political independence.
• The British introduction of the zamindari system led to the imposition of rent on tribal land, causing eviction for non-payment and increased dependence on usurious moneylenders. So, the movement started with anger against moneylenders and outsiders ('dikus'), including Christian Missionaries.
• Later, the Government took measures like the abolishment of compulsory begar, and passage of the Tenancy Act of 1903, which recognised Mundas' Khuntkatti system. The Chotanagpur Tenancy Act was passed in 1908.

Tana Bhagat Movement (1914-1920) [Oraon tribes, Chotanagpur, Jharkhand]

• Leaders: Jatra Bhagat/Balram Bhagat.
• Cause: Economic exploitation by landlords, moneylenders, and the British.
• Jatra Bhagat, claiming divine ordination, led the movement, which started in 1914. The movement used non-violent methods such as satyagraha, influencing resistance before Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement.
• The movement became a significant part of tribal resistance. In 1921, the Tana Bhagats allied with Congress, strengthening the wider independence struggle.

Rampa Revolt (1922-24) [Andhra Pradesh]

• The Rampa Rebellion (1922–1924) was a tribal uprising in the Rampa region of the Godavari Agency in present-day Andhra Pradesh.
• Leader: Alluri Sitarama Raju.
• Cause: British interference in tribal areas, imposition of forest laws, and exploitation by moneylenders.
• The movement was suppressed by the British, and Alluri Sitarama Raju was killed in 1924.

4. The Revolt of 1857

Background

• 19th Native Infantry at Berhampore (West Bengal): Refused to use newly introduced Enfield rifle in February 1857; disbanded in March 1857.
• Mangal Pande of 34th Native Infantry fired at the sergeant major at Barrackpore. He was executed and his regiment was disbanded.

Causes

• Military Causes:
  • Racism — lack of promotions and privileges to native soldiers.
  • General Service Enlistment Act (1856): Recruits had to serve anywhere, including crossing the sea.
  • Rumours of grease in cartridges made of beef (angered Hindus) and pig fat (angered Muslims).
• Economic Causes:
  • Peasants heavily taxed, faced evictions due to debt and landlessness.
  • Artisans lost patronage as native rulers came under economic duress.
  • Zamindars lost lands due to frequent use of quo warranto by the administration.
• Political Causes:
  • Expansionary policies — Subsidiary Alliance, Doctrine of Lapse, and Effective Control.
  • Awadh Annexation (1856): Popular Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was displaced.
• Socio-Religious Causes:
  • Christian missionaries seen with suspicion.
  • Socio-religious reforms like Sati Abolition and Widow Remarriage seen as interference.

Major Centres and Leaders

5. Causes of Failure of Revolt

• Limited Spread: Eastern, southern, and western parts remained unaffected.
• Loyalty of Indian Rulers: Scindia of Gwalior, Holkar of Indore, and others stayed loyal.
• Big zamindars and moneylenders stayed away — their interests were best served under the British.
• Feudal, conservative nature alienated the educated middle class.
• Poor quality of weapons against superior British weaponry.
• Uncoordinated attacks against exceptional British military commanders like James Outram and Henry Havelock.
• No unified ideology or future vision to bind the mutineers.

6. Socio-Religious Reform Movements

Brahmo Samaj (1828)

• Founder: Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
• Denounced polytheism, idolatry, faith in avatars, caste system.
• Anti-sati campaign (1818): Led to government regulation in 1829 declaring sati a crime.

Prarthana Samaj (1867)

• Founded: Keshab Chandra Sen helped Atmaram Pandurang in Bombay.
• Focus: Social reforms — disapproval of caste system, women's education, widow remarriage.

Arya Samaj (1875)

• Founder: Dayananda Saraswati.
• Vision outlined in Satyarth Prakash — classless and casteless society, united India, freedom from foreign rule.
• Gave slogan "Back to the Vedas".

Theosophical Society (1875)

• Founders: Madame H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel M.S. Olcott.
• Headquarters moved to Adyar, near Madras (1882).
• Embraced Hindu concepts — reincarnation, karma, Upanishads, yoga, Vedanta.
• Annie Besant became President in 1907; established Central Hindu College, Benaras (1898) — nucleus for Benaras Hindu University (1916).

Satyshodhak Samaj (1873)

• Founder: Jyotirao Phule.
• Leadership from backward classes.
• Main aims: social service, spread of education among women and lower castes.
• Introduced term 'Dalit'.

Self-Respect Movement (1920s)

• Leader: E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker.
• Sought to reject Brahmanical religion and culture as instruments of exploitation.

Singh Sabha Movement (1873)

• Aimed to provide modern education to Sikhs; network of Khalsa schools established.
• Akali Movement (Gurudwara Reform Movement): Offshoot of Singh Sabha Movement.
• Aimed to liberate Sikh gurudwaras from corrupt Udasi mahants.
• Gurdwaras Act of 1922 (amended 1925) — gave control to Sikh masses through Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC).

Parsi Reform Movements

• Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Religious Reform Association) — 1851
• Founded by English-educated Parsis for regeneration of social conditions.
• Message spread by newspaper Rast Goftar (Truth-Teller).

Muslim Reform Movements

• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan: Established Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College (1875) — now Aligarh Muslim University.
• Deoband School (1866): Founded at Darul Uloom, Saharanpur by orthodox Muslim ulema.
• Wahabi Movement (1830–61): Islamist revivalist movement advocating complete adherence to Sharia.
• Ahmadiyya Movement (1889): Founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad — embraced liberal principles.

7. Important Personalities and their Contributions

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy: Father of the Indian Renaissance; founded Brahmo Samaj; campaigned against sati.
• Dayananda Saraswati: Founded Arya Samaj; advocated "Back to the Vedas" and a classless society.
• Swami Vivekananda: Preached neo-Hinduism; represented Hinduism at the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago (1893).
• Jyotirao Phule: Founded Satyshodhak Samaj; introduced the term 'Dalit'; championed education for lower castes and women.
• Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar: Pioneered widow remarriage movement; championed women's education.
• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan: Founded Aligarh Muslim University; promoted Western education among Muslims.
• Mahatma Gandhi: Led the Champaran Satyagraha (1917); Non-Cooperation Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement, Quit India Movement.
• Birsa Munda: Led the Ulgulan movement; fought against exploitation of tribals.
• Bhagat Singh: Revolutionary; involved in the Saunders murder and Central Assembly bombing.
• Subhas Chandra Bose: Formed the Indian National Army (INA); led the Azad Hind Government.