Art and Culture | Chapter - Archaeology
1. Ancient Settlements and Excavations
2,800-YEAR-OLD SETTLEMENT IN VADNAGAR
Context: A study by IIT Kharagpur suggests cultural continuity in Vadnagar for over 5,500 years, challenging the "Dark Age" notion between the Indus Valley collapse and the Iron Age.
Key Highlights:
- Ancient Human Settlement: Excavation reveals an 800 BCE settlement (late Vedic/pre-Buddhist Mahajanapadas), with radiocarbon evidence hinting at origins as early as 1400 BCE, linking it to the late post-urban Harappan period.
- Impact of Climate on Kingdoms and Invasions: Severe climatic changes, such as rainfall or drought variations, drove the rise and fall of kingdoms during the 3,000-year period and recurrent invasions by Central Asian warriors.
- Multicultural and Multireligious Heritage: Vadnagar housed diverse traditions, including Buddhist, Hindu, Jain, and Islamic influences.
- Seven Cultural Stages Uncovered: Traces of Mauryan, Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian/Shaka-Kshatrapas, Hindu Solanki, Sultanate-Mughal, and Gaekwad-British colonial periods.
- Buddhist Monastery Discovery: One of India's oldest Buddhist monasteries was found, highlighting Vadnagar's religious significance.
- Rich Archaeological Artefacts: Findings include potteries, copper, gold, silver, and iron objects, intricately designed bangles, and coin moulds of the Greek king Apollodatus.
- Significance of Vadnagar: Identified as the oldest living city within a single fortification unearthed in India so far.
- Published Research: Findings have been published in the journal Quaternary Science Reviews.
- Collaborative and Funded Research: Study was led by ASI with funding from Gujarat's Directorate of Archaeology and Museums and Infosys Foundation's Sudha Murthy.
About Vadnagar:
- It is a town and municipality under Mehsana district of the Northern Gujarat region.
- It is mentioned in the travelogue of the Chinese traveller, Hieu-en-Tsang (7th century), as a rich and flourishing town.
- According to the inscription on the Arjun Bari Gate, King Kumarpal fortified the city in 1152 AD.
- Notable Structures: Hatkeshwar Temple, Kirti Torans, Paschim Mehtani Vav, Zunzunia Well and Sharmishtha Lake.
- It is a town and municipality under Mehsana district of the Northern Gujarat region.
- It is mentioned in the travelogue of the Chinese traveller, Hieu-en-Tsang (7th century), as a rich and flourishing town.
- According to the inscription on the Arjun Bari Gate, King Kumarpal fortified the city in 1152 AD.
- Notable Structures: Hatkeshwar Temple, Kirti Torans, Paschim Mehtani Vav, Zunzunia Well and Sharmishtha Lake.
PHANIGIRI
Context: The Department of Archaeology and Museums has unearthed a coin hoard at the Phanigiri Buddhist site in the Suryapet district (Telangana).
More on News:
- According to the archaeologists, the coins belong to the Ikshvaku period, dated between the 3rd century and the 4th century Common Era.
- According to etymology, in Sanskrit, Phani means 'snake', and Giri means 'hilltop'.
- Ikshvaku Period: The Ikshvaku dynasty (c. 225-340 A.D.) was a feudatory tribe under the patronage of the great Satavahana Empire that ruled the Andhra region.
EXCAVATION OF 5,200-YEAR-OLD HARAPPAN SETTLEMENT
Context: Recently, archaeologists from Kerala University unearthed a 5,200-year old Harappan settlement at Padta Bet, near Juna Khatiya, an early Harappan necropolis in Gujarat.
Key findings of the excavation:
- Remains of circular and rectangular structures made of locally available sandstone and shales were found.
- Artefacts: Semi-precious stone beads (carnelian, agate), terracotta spindle whorls, copper, lithic tools, grinding stones, and hammer stones.
- Animal bones indicating domestication of cattle, sheep, goats and edible shell fragments provide the evidence of shellfish exploitation by the inhabitants.
- Unlike most Harappan settlements on plains, this site stands uniquely on a hillock with a valley view and nearby stream, likely its water source.
- Timeline: Settlement evidence spans from Early Harappan (circa 3200 BCE) to Late Harappan periods (circa 1700 BCE).
Knowledge Nugget: About Necropolis
- A necropolis is a large, designed cemetery with elaborate tomb monuments. The name derives from the ancient Greek, meaning "city of the dead".
- A necropolis is a large, designed cemetery with elaborate tomb monuments. The name derives from the ancient Greek, meaning "city of the dead".
2. Megalithic Sites and Burial Cultures
PERUMBALAI
Context: The report, titled 'Excavations at Perumbalai 2022' published by the Tamil Nadu Department of Archaeology, was released by Chief Minister M.K. Stalin.
Key Findings:
- Graffiti marks: The most common graffiti marks are geometrical signs. These graffiti marks are confined to the Iron Age and early historic period.
- Potteries: The chronological pottery sequence shows a thin lower level dominated by fine BRW and black ware.
- Clay: The clay used for making the potteries was fine and well-levigated clay.
- Swastik-like symbols: A fully shaped black-and-red ware bowl containing the Swastik sign was exposed.
Knowledge Nugget: About Black and Red Ware Culture (BRW)
- It is an early Iron Age archaeological culture of the northern Indian subcontinent.
- It is dated to roughly the 12th – 9th century BCE, and associated with the post-Rigvedic Vedic civilization.
- It is an early Iron Age archaeological culture of the northern Indian subcontinent.
- It is dated to roughly the 12th – 9th century BCE, and associated with the post-Rigvedic Vedic civilization.
About Perumbalai:
- Perumbalai is located on the banks of the River Nagavathi (ancient Palar), tributary of Cauvery river.
- Perumbalai is located on the banks of the River Nagavathi (ancient Palar), tributary of Cauvery river.
MEGALITHIC BURIAL SITE IN KERALA
Context: A rainwater harvesting project by the Koduvayur Grama Panchayat in Kerala led to the discovery of many megalithic urn burials.
Key findings:
- These urns were found on Kundlikkad hill, in the Kollengode range of Nenmara forest, Palakkad district, Kerala.
- Archaeological Importance: These urns could provide valuable information about the connection between the Mesolithic and Iron Age periods in Kerala.
About Megalith:
- It is a very large, usually rough stone used in prehistoric cultures as a monument or building block.
Types of Megaliths:
Underground components:
- Pit burials: These are unlined pits where bodies of one or more dead persons are buried.
- Cist burials: Stone-lined underground grave, usually rectangular in plan.
- Urn burials: It is a burial practice where ashes and bones are placed in a terracotta urns, typically after cremation.
- Sarcophagus burials: These are terracotta receptacles with lids, sometimes shaped like animals.
Surface Components:
- Menhirs: Single stone, unshaped or minimally altered natural boulders, often used as markers or memorials.
- Boulder circles: These are the circular arrangements of rocks or boulders and mark the burial sites.
- Cairns: Earth mounds often cover burials or other structures.
- Dolmenoid cists: It is a partially underground stone structure with a capstone.
- Dolmens: It is a large freestanding stone structure that has capstone.
- It is a very large, usually rough stone used in prehistoric cultures as a monument or building block.
Types of Megaliths:
Underground components:
- Pit burials: These are unlined pits where bodies of one or more dead persons are buried.
- Cist burials: Stone-lined underground grave, usually rectangular in plan.
- Urn burials: It is a burial practice where ashes and bones are placed in a terracotta urns, typically after cremation.
- Sarcophagus burials: These are terracotta receptacles with lids, sometimes shaped like animals.
Surface Components:
- Menhirs: Single stone, unshaped or minimally altered natural boulders, often used as markers or memorials.
- Boulder circles: These are the circular arrangements of rocks or boulders and mark the burial sites.
- Cairns: Earth mounds often cover burials or other structures.
- Dolmenoid cists: It is a partially underground stone structure with a capstone.
- Dolmens: It is a large freestanding stone structure that has capstone.
DODDALATHUR MEGALITHIC BURIAL SITE
Context: A team of history and archaeology scholars from the University of Mysore have embarked on an excavation of megalithic burial sites in Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka.
About Doddalathur Megalithic Burial Site:
- Location: Doddalathur village, Male Mahadeshwara Hill ranges, Karnataka.
- Period: Megalithic-Iron Age (1200 BCE to 300 CE).
- It was discovered in 1961 by C. Krishnamurti of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
- The site features burials marked by large stone boulders in circular arrangements.
Knowledge Nugget: About Megaliths
- A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a prehistoric structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones by ancient communities.
- The word "megalith" comes from the Ancient Greek words mega meaning "great" and lithos meaning "stone".
- They were constructed either as burial sites or commemorative memorials.
- The megalithic monuments of peninsular India, believed to have been erected in the Iron Age (1500 BC – 200 AD).
- Megaliths are found throughout peninsular India, especially in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.
- A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a prehistoric structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones by ancient communities.
- The word "megalith" comes from the Ancient Greek words mega meaning "great" and lithos meaning "stone".
- They were constructed either as burial sites or commemorative memorials.
- The megalithic monuments of peninsular India, believed to have been erected in the Iron Age (1500 BC – 200 AD).
- Megaliths are found throughout peninsular India, especially in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.
High-Yield Interactive UPSC Quiz (Chapter 6 Focus)
Q1. With reference to the Vadnagar excavation, consider the following statements:
1. The study suggests cultural continuity in Vadnagar for over 5,500 years.
2. Vadnagar is mentioned in the travelogue of Chinese traveller Hieu-en-Tsang.
3. The excavation revealed seven cultural stages including Mauryan, Indo-Greek, and Sultanate-Mughal periods.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Correct Answer: D. All three statements are correct. The Vadnagar excavation revealed cultural continuity over 5,500 years, is mentioned in Hieu-en-Tsang's travelogue, and uncovered seven cultural stages.
Q2. Consider the following pairs of archaeological sites and their locations:
1. Phanigiri - Suryapet district, Telangana
2. Padta Bet - Gujarat
3. Perumbalai - Kerala
How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
Correct Answer: B. Pairs 1 and 2 are correctly matched. Perumbalai is located on the banks of the River Nagavathi in Tamil Nadu, not Kerala.
Q3. With reference to megalithic burial types, consider the following statements:
1. Urn burials involve placing ashes and bones in terracotta urns after cremation.
2. Menhirs are circular arrangements of rocks that mark burial sites.
3. Dolmens are large freestanding stone structures with capstones.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Correct Answer: B. Statements 1 and 3 are correct. Menhirs are single stones used as markers, while boulder circles are circular arrangements of rocks marking burial sites.
Q4. Consider the following statements about the Harappan settlement at Padta Bet:
1. It is located on a hillock, unlike most Harappan settlements on plains.
2. The settlement evidence spans from Early Harappan to Late Harappan periods.
3. It is located near Juna Khatiya, an early Harappan necropolis.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Correct Answer: D. All three statements are correct. The Padta Bet settlement is uniquely located on a hillock, spans from Early to Late Harappan periods, and is situated near Juna Khatiya, an early Harappan necropolis.