1. The South Indian Empires

The Sangam Age Dynasties

• Cheras:
  • Ruled parts of modern Kerala.
  • Capital: Vanji; Ports: Tondi, Musiri.
  • Emblem: Bow.
  • Cheran Senguttuvan (2nd century AD): Led an expedition to the Himalayas, defeated North Indian rulers, and introduced the Pattini cult (Kannagi worship).
  • Elango Adigal, his brother, authored Silappathigaram.
  • Titles: Vanavaramban, Kuttuvan.
• Pandyas:
  • Ruled Southern Tamil Nadu.
  • Capital: Madurai.
  • Emblem: Carp.
  • Neduncheliyan I: Defeated Aryan forces; involved in Kannagi's story.
  • Neduncheliyan II: Won Battle of Talaiyalanganam; expanded Pandya control.
  • Port: Korkai was a key Pandya seaport.
  • Titles: Thennavar, Minavar.
• Cholas:
  • Ruled from Tiruchi to Southern Andhra Pradesh.
  • Capitals: Uraiyur; Port: Puhar.
  • Emblem: Tiger.
  • Karikala Chola: Defeated Chera-Pandya confederacy in Battle of Venni.
  • Built Kallanai (Grand Anicut) across Kaveri and promoted agriculture.
  • Titles: Senni, Valavan.

Administration and Trade

• Administration: Five councils – Ministers, Priests, Military Commanders, Envoys, Spies.
• Revenue Sources: Land tax, customs duty, war booty.
• Well-maintained roads, strict security to prevent robbery and smuggling.
• Korkai, Poompuhar/Puhar and Muchiri/Musiri were well known as Ports in Ancient India. (UPSC 2023)
• 'Vattakirutal': A king defeated in a battle committing ritual suicide by starving himself to death (UPSC 2023).
• Gajabhagu II (Sri Lanka) & Cheran Senguttuvan (Chera) were contemporaries – confirmed by Silappathigaram, Dipavamsa, and Mahavamsa.
• Roman coins (1st century AD) found in Tamil Nadu indicate foreign trade links.

2. Medieval Indian Dynasties

Northern and Central Indian Dynasties

• Palas (750–1161 AD):
  • Founder: Gopala (750–770 AD) → Established Odantapuri Mahavihara (Bihar).
  • Dharmapala: Titles - Paramesvara, Parambhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja; founded Vikramashila Monastery (Bhagalpur).
  • Devapala: Expanded to Kamarupa (Assam), defeated Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha.
  • Decline: Due to Pratihara-Rashtrakuta conflicts.
  • Religion: Mahayana Buddhism patrons.
• Gurjara Pratiharas (8th–11th Century AD):
  • Founder: Harichandra; Called Al-Jurz by Arabs.
  • Capital: Initially Bhinmal, later Kanauj.
  • Key Rulers: Nagabhatta I, Vatsaraja, Nagabhatta II, Mihir Bhoja.
  • Military: Resisted Arab invasions, fought Palas & Rashtrakutas.
• Chandelas of Jejakabhukti (Bundelkhand) (9th-13th Century AD):
  • Founder: Nannuka.
  • Key Rulers: Yasovarman, Vidyadhara, Paramardideva.
  • Legacy: Built Khajuraho temples.
• Paramaras of Malwa (9th-14th Century AD):
  • Founder: Upendra/Krishnaraja; Capital - Dhar.
  • Key Ruler: Raja Bhoja (Authored books on medicine, astronomy, etc.).
  • Decline: Defeated by Alauddin Khalji (1305 AD).
• Tomaras of Dhillika (8th-12th Century AD):
  • Capital: Dhillika (Delhi).
  • Key Ruler: Anangapala Tomara (Founded Delhi, built Lal Kot & Anang Tal).
  • Legacy: Suraj Kund reservoir built by Surajpala.
• Chahmanas (Chauhans) of Sakambhari (6th-12th Century AD):
  • Founder: Simharaja; Capital - Sambhar (Rajasthan).
  • Key Ruler: Prithviraj III (Fought Muhammad Ghori in Battle of Tarain - Won in 1191, Lost in 1192).
  • Literary Work: Prithviraj Raso by Chandbardai.
• Gahadvalas of Kannauj (11th-12th Century AD) (UPSC 2023):
  • Founder: Chandradeva.
  • Key Ruler: Jaichandra (Defeated by Muhammad Ghori in Battle of Chandawar - 1194).
  • Legacy: Rathore clan founded by his grandson Siyaji at Jodhpur.
• Kalachuris of Tripuri (10th-12th Century AD):
  • Founder: Kokalla-I.
  • Legacy: Patronized poet Rajasekhara.
• Chalukyas (Solankis) of Gujarat (950-1300 AD):
  • Key Rulers: Bhima I, Jayasimha Siddharaja, Kumarpala.
  • Invasions: Mahmud Ghazni looted Somnath temple; Muhammad Ghur invaded later.
  • Decline: Karna II lost to Alauddin Khalji.

Kashmir, Assam, Bengal, and Orissa Dynasties

• Kashmir Dynasties:
  • Karkota Dynasty: Lalitaditya, Muktapida.
  • Utpala Dynasty: Avantivarman (Improved irrigation, controlled floods).
  • Lohara Dynasty: Queen Didda.
• Assam Dynasties:
  • Pralamba Dynasty: Defended against Bakhtiyar Khalji.
  • Ahoms: Established in 13th century, relied on Paik labor system.
    • Ruled Assam (1228–1826), resisted Mughals for 600 years.
    • Founded by Sukaphaa (Shan prince).
    • Defeated Mughals at Saraighat (1671) under Lachit Borphukan.
    • Tungkhungia dynasty (last rulers), British took over (1826, Treaty of Yandabo).
  • Moidams (Ahom Burial Mounds):
    • Found in Charaideo, used for Ahom royals.
    • Three parts: Vault (body), mound, brick structure (offerings).
    • Material shifted from wood to brick under Rudra Singha.
    • Recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Varmans & Senas of Bengal (11th Century AD):
  • Varmans: Early rulers of Bengal.
  • Senas: Kannada-origin dynasty.
    • Ballala Sena: Introduced Kulinism (social stratification).
    • Lakshmanasena: Patron of Jayadeva (Gita Govinda). Defeated by Bakhtiyar Khalji.
• Kalinga (Orissa) Dynasties:
  • Shailodbhava Dynasty: Madhavavarman (Performed Ashwamedha).
  • Eastern Gangas:
    • Anantavarman Chodaganga: Built Jagannath temple.
    • Narasimha I: Built Sun Temple, Konark.
  • Suryavamsa Dynasty: Took over in mid-15th century.

Additional Facts

• Pratiharas, Palas, Rashtrakutas → Tripartite struggle for Kanauj.
• Gangas in Orissa → Jagannath temple, Sun Temple.
• Kannauj & Bengal Dynasties → Jaichandra's fall, Sena rulers, Jayadeva (Gita Govinda).
• Prithviraj III vs. Muhammad Ghori → Battle of Tarain (1191 & 1192).

3. Kingdoms of Southern India

Pallavas

• Origins: Debated; some link them to the Parthians (Pahlavas), while others consider them native to South India.
• Kanchi (Kanchipuram) became a major trade and temple town.
• Ghatikas: Colleges generally attached to the temples. (UPSC 2016)

Political History

• Three Phases of Rule:
  • 250-350 A.D. (Early rulers) – Issued charters in Prakrit (e.g., Sivaskandavarman, Vijayaskandavarman).
  • 350-550 A.D. – Charters in Sanskrit (e.g., Vishnugopa defeated by Samudragupta).
  • 575-9th century A.D. – Charters in Sanskrit & Tamil (e.g., Simhavishnu, Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I & II).

Mahendravarman I (600-630 A.D.)

• Started Pallava-Chalukya conflict (lost to Pulakesin II).
• Converted from Jainism to Saivism (influenced by Appar).
• Temple builder (cave temples: Mandagappattu, Vallam, Mahendravadi).
• Titles: Gunabhara, Chitrakarapuli, Mattavilasa, Chettakari.
• Author: Mattavilasa Prahasanam (Sanskrit work).
• Mahendravarman I compiled Dakshinchitra (Chittirakkarapuli).
• Rock-Cut Temples (Mahendravarman I): Mandagappattu, Mahendravadi, Mamandur, Dalavanur, Tiruchirappalli, Vallam, Siyamangalam, Tirukalukkunram.

Narasimhavarman I – Mamalla (630-668 A.D.)

• Defeated Pulakesin II (Battle of Manimangalam), captured Vatapi → Title "Vatapikonda".
• Naval expedition to Sri Lanka (helped Manavarma reclaim throne).
• Founder of Mamallapuram (monolithic rathas).
• Hiuen Tsang's visit – Described Kanchi as a major learning center (Ghatika).
• Monolithic Rathas & Mandapas (Narasimhavarman I – Mamalla):
  • Panchapandava Rathas – Five temple styles.
  • Mandapas with sculptures – Mahishasuramardhini, Tirumurthi, Varaha Mandapas.

Narasimhavarman II – Rajasimha (695-722 A.D.)

• Patron of art & literature (scholar Dandin in his court).
• Maritime trade flourished, sent embassies to China.
• Decline: Last Pallava ruler, Aparajita defeated by Chola king Aditya I → End of Pallava rule (9th century A.D.).
• Structural Temples (Rajasimha – Narasimhavarman II):
  • Kailasanatha Temple (Kanchipuram) – Pallava masterpiece.
  • Shore Temple (Mamallapuram) – Famous coastal temple.

Kadambas of Banavasi (345-525 CE)

• Founded by Mayurasharman (345 AD), who fought the Pallavas with the help of forest tribes.
• Later became feudatories of Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas.
• By the 11th century, two branches emerged:
  • Kadambas of Hangal (Dharwar district).
  • Kadambas of Goa (Dharwar, Karwar, Belgaum districts).

Rashtrakutas (755–975 AD)

• Founder: Dantidurga. He defeated Gurjaras & Chalukyas.
• Notable Rulers:
  • Krishna I: Built Kailasa Temple, Ellora.
    • Three-tiered sikhara resembling Mamallapuram rathas.
    • Pillared hall with sixteen square pillars, Dravidian architectural style.
    • Notable sculptures: Goddess Durga slaying Buffalo demon, Ravana attempting to lift Mount Kailasa and Ramayana scenes on walls.
  • Govinda III: Expanded empire into North India.
  • Amoghavarsha I: Ruled 64 years, patronized Jainism & literature (Wrote - Kavirajamarga).
  • Krishna III: Defeated Cholas, captured Tanjore & Rameswaram.
  • Post-Krishna III, the empire weakened.

Chalukyas (543 – 755 AD)

• Established by Pulikesin I (543–566 AD) after breaking away from the Kadambas.
• Kirtivarman (566–597 AD) founded Badami as the capital.
• Pulikesin II (609–642 AD) defeated Mangalesha, consolidated power, and repelled Harshavardhana near the Narmada River (Aihole inscription).
• Jainism flourished; Ravikirti, court poet of Pulakesin II, was a Jain (composed Aihole inscription).
• Capital: Vatapi/Badami.
• Branches: Eastern Chalukyas (Vengi) & Chalukyas of Kalyani.
• Rule: Dominated Deccan for ~200 years before Rashtrakutas.
• Influenced by Vakataka-style painting, with Vishnu-themed artworks.
• Pulakesin I performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice.
• Sanskrit was used in inscriptions like Aihole and Mahakudam.

Later Pandyas of Madurai (6th–10th Century AD)

• Key Rulers: Kadunkon, Sendan, Arikesari Maravarman, Varaguna I, Maravarman Kulasekharan.
• Capital: Madurai (Kudal, Tamil Kelukudal).
• Religion & Patronage:
  • Initially Jain; Later Saivism & Vaishnavism.
  • Meenakshi Temple: Patronized by Pandyas.
  • Sadaiyavarman Sundarapandyan: Anointed in Srirangam Temple, donated Vishnu idol.

Chola Dynasty: Imperial Cholas (9th – 13th Century)

• Founder: Vijayalaya (Captured Tanjore from Muttaraiyars in 815 AD).
• Capital: Tanjore.

Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 AD)

• Expanded Chola power: Defeated Cheras, Pandyas, Western Chalukyas, Sri Lanka (Anuradhapura → Polonnaruwa).
• Naval expedition to Maldives.
• Titles: Mummidi Chola, Jayankonda, Sivapadasekara.
• Architecture: Brihadeeswara Temple, Buddhist monastery (Nagapattinam).

Rajendra I (1012 – 1044 AD)

• Sri Lanka was completely annexed.
• Ganga expedition (defeated Mahipala I, Bengal); built Gangaikondacholapuram city & Cholagangam tank.
• Naval expedition to Kadaram (Sri Vijaya), assumed title Kadaramkondan.
• Titles: Mudikondan, Gangaikondan, Kadaram Kondan.
• Founded the city & built Rajesvaram Temple.
• Religion: Saivism; built temples at Gangaikondacholapuram & Chidambaram.

Later Cholas & Decline

• Kulottunga I: United Cholas & Vengi, sent an embassy to China.
• Kulottunga III: Weak central authority, rise of feudatories.
• Rajendra III: Last Chola king, defeated by Jatavarman Sundarapandya II → Chola empire absorbed into Pandya rule.

Kakatiya Dynasty (950-1323 AD)

• Origins & Rise: Feudatories of Western Chalukyas, gained independence in the 10th century. Beta I founded the kingdom in Nalgonda.
• Key Rulers:
  • Ganapatideva: Expanded from Bay of Bengal to Kancheepuram, built Warangal, promoted trade & agriculture.
  • Rudramadevi: Defended against Yadavas & Malik Kafur, patron of arts & temples. Died in battle (1289 AD).
  • Pratap Rudra: Last ruler, resisted Delhi Sultanate but lost Warangal (1323 AD).
• Cultural & Economic Achievements:
  • Promoted Telugu literature & Saivism.
  • Built Thousand Pillars Temple, irrigation tanks, & Warangal Fort.
  • Port: Motupalli Port (UPSC 2017); visited by Marco Polo.
• Legacy: Musunuri Nayaks reclaimed Warangal, Kakatiya influence shaped Deccan polity & architecture.

Hoysala Dynasty (10th–14th Century AD) (UPSC 2023)

• Founder: Sala (Nripakama).
• Capital: Dwarasamudra; Belur (royal residence).
• Key Rulers: Vishnuvardhan, Ballala II, Ballala III (fought Khalji & Tughlaq).
• UNESCO World Heritage Site (2023): Belur, Halebid, Somnathapura.
• The 12th-13th century Hoysala temples, a blend of Dravidian, Nagara, Bhumija styles.
• Three Main Temples:
  • Chennakeshava Temple (Belur, Hassan): In a fort-moat settlement.
  • Hoysaleswara Temple (Halebid, Hassan): Near Dwarasamudra tank.
  • Keshava Temple (Somnathapura, Mysore): At village center.
• Architectural Features:
  • Elaborate stone carvings, multi-tiered friezes, and circumambulatory platform.
  • Hyper-real sculptures, large sculptural gallery, and Sala legend depictions.
  • Fusion of various temple styles, distinct Hoysala identity.

4. Advent of Islam in India

Arab Rule (712 AD)

• Muhammad Bin Qasim defeated King Dahir, established Arab rule in Sind.

Ghaznavids (997-1030 AD)

• Mahmud of Ghazni invaded India 17 times, looted Somnath (1025 AD).
• Defeated Jaipal (1001 AD) & Anandpal (Battle of Waihind, 1008-09 AD).

Ghurids (1175-1206 AD)

• Muhammad Ghori was defeated in the Battle of Kayadara (1178-79) by Bhimdev II.
• Battle of Tarain (1191) – Prithviraj Chauhan won, but lost in 1192.
• Battle of Chandawar (1194) – Defeated Jai Chand (Kannauj).

5. Delhi Sultanate

Slave (Mamluk) Dynasty (1206-1290 AD)

Qutub-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210)

• Founder of Slave Dynasty, Capital: Lahore.
• "Lakh Baksh" – Donor of lakhs.
• Built Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque (Delhi), Arhai Din ka Jhopra (Ajmer).
• Started Qutub Minar (dedicated to Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki).

Iltutmish (1210-1236)

• The real founder of the Delhi Sultanate, shifted capital to Delhi.
• Mongol invasion (Genghis Khan) – avoided conflict by not sheltering Jalaluddin.
• It was during the reign of Iltutmish that Genghis Khan reached the Indus in pursuit of the fugitive Khwarezm Prince. (UPSC 2021)
• Created Chahalgani (Chalisa) – Council of 40 nobles.
• Introduced the Iqta system & Tanka (silver) and Jital (copper) coins.
• Completed Qutub Minar's construction.

Razia Sultan (1236-1240)

• Only female ruler of Delhi Sultanate.
• She had a power struggle with Chahalgani.
• Patronised Jalal-ud-din Yaqut (Abyssinian slave).
• Killed in Punjab rebellion.

Balban (1266-1287)

• Zil-e-Ilahi (Shadow of God), abolished Chahalgani.
• Blood & Iron policy – crushed Mewatis & robbers.
• Enforced Sijda (prostration) and Paibos (kissing feet).
• Strengthened Diwan-i-Arz (Military Department).

Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD)

Jalaluddin Khilji (1290-1296)

• Ended the Turk monopoly, moderate policies towards Hindus.
• Killed by nephew, Alauddin Khilji.

Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316)

• First, to have a standing army & pay soldiers in cash.
• Defeated the Mongols (Targhi's invasion), expanded into Rajasthan, Malwa, Gujarat and Deccan.
• During the reign of Ala-ud-din Khalji, one Mongol assault marched up to Delhi and besieged the city. (UPSC 2022)
• Market reforms: fixed prices, controlled hoarding.
• Revenue system: Collected Kharaj (50% of produce), imposed Ghari (House tax), Charai (Grazing tax).
• Spy system & postal system.
• Issued Gold Dinars (post-South India conquests).
• Implemented the "Dagh" (branding of horses) and "Huliya" (descriptive rolls of soldiers) systems as part of his military reforms.
• Art: Patronized Amir Khusrau (Tuti-e-Hind, "Parrot of India").
• Architecture: Alai Darwaza, Siri Fort.

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1413 AD)

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325)

• Built the Tughlaqabad Fort.
• First Sultan to construct canals.

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-1351)

• Introduced Token Currency (Bronze Coins) → failed.
• The capital shifted to Daulatabad (Devagiri).
• Raised taxes in Doab.
• Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi → A department to promote agriculture.
• Taccavi loans (state-provided agricultural loans).
• Ibn Battuta served as his envoy to China.
• Died marching towards Sindh.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388)

• Jizya as a separate tax on Hindus.
  • Initially part of land revenue, later collected separately (Firoz Tughlaq).
• Public works: Built canals, towns (Fatehabad, Hisar, Jaunpur).
• Kotla Fort – Built by Firoz Tughlaq.
• Dar-ul-shafa (Hospitals), Diwan-i-Khairat (Marriage aid for poor girls).
• Brought Ashokan pillars to Delhi (Meerut & Topara).
• First to impose Sharb (irrigation tax).

Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)

• Founder: Khizr Khan (appointed governor of Multan by Timur, later captured Delhi in 1414).
• Tried to consolidate Delhi Sultanate but failed.
• Mubarak Shah (1421-1434): Struggled to control nobles.
• Muhammad Shah (1434-1445): Lost control to nobles, dominated by Buhlul Lodi.
• Alam Shah (1445-1451): Weak ruler, abdicated in favor of Bahlul Lodi, retired to Badaun.

Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526)

Bahlul Lodi (1451-1489)

• Founder of the Lodi dynasty.
• Expanded control over Jaunpur, strengthened the empire.

Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517)

• Extended empire from Punjab to Bihar.
• Defeated Rajput chiefs, attacked Bengal, and forced treaty.
• Good administrator: Built roads, improved irrigation.
• Religious intolerance: Destroyed Hindu temples, imposed restrictions on Hindus.

Ibrahim Lodi (1517-1526)

• Arrogant & unpopular: Humiliated nobles, executed rebels.
• Daulat Khan Lodi (Punjab governor) invited Babur to invade India.
• Defeated & killed in the First Battle of Panipat (1526).
• Lodi Gardens – Lodi-era architecture.

6. Summary: South Indian Empires and Medieval Dynasties