1. Palaeolithic Period

Lower/Early Palaeolithic Age

• Period: Approximately 2.58 million BCE to 250,000-200,000 BCE, encapsulating a substantial portion of the Ice Age.
• Tools: Utilization of primitive stone tools such as hand axes, choppers, and cleavers.
• Oldowan Tools: Simple pebble tools and flakes used for cutting and scraping. These are older than Acheulean tools.
• Acheulean Tools: Encompass polyhedron spheroids, hand axes and cleavers.

Middle Palaeolithic Age

• Period: Extends roughly from around 300,000 years ago to 30,000 years ago.
• Tools: Development of tools such as scrapers, borers, points, and bladelike implements.
• Nevasan Industry: A term coined by H.D. Sankalia in 1960. It is associated with the Middle Palaeolithic Period. Named after the Nevasa site in Maharashtra, this industry refers to the distinctive technological characteristics and tool types identified during this period.

Later or Upper Palaeolithic Age

• Period: Spans from approximately 40,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE.
• Later Paleolithic period coincides with the last phase of the Ice Age, during which the climate experienced a shift towards warmer and less humid conditions.
• Tools: Emergence of advanced tools, including parallel-sided blades, bruins, and, in some instances, the use of bone tools.

2. Mesolithic Period

• Period: Spans from approximately 10,000 BCE to 4,000 BCE.
• Both Mesolithic and Neolithic Cultures fall under the Holocene era, succeeding the Pleistocene era.
• Communities demonstrated a shift in settlement patterns, choosing to stay in one area for longer durations compared to their predecessors.
• The Mesolithic period witnessed a gradual transition towards domestication of animals.
• Discovery of fire and invention of microliths.
• Microliths: Miniature stone tools, usually made of crypto-crystalline silica, chalcedony, or chert, both of geometrical and non-geometrical shapes. These tools were smaller in size compared to the larger implements of the Palaeolithic period.

Epochs

• Pleistocene Epoch (Ice Age): Spanned from roughly 2.6 million to 11,700 years ago, characterized by repeated glacial and interglacial periods, along with the evolution and expansion of humans.
• Holocene Epoch: The current geological epoch; began approximately 11,700 years ago following the last glacial period and extends to the present day.

3. Neolithic Age

• Period: The Neolithic Age unfolded in northern India around 8000−6000 BCE, while in certain regions of south and eastern India, it emerged as late as 1000 BCE.
• Neolithic communities engaged in cultivation, growing crops such as ragi and horse gram (kulathi).
• Tools: Use of sharp and polished stone tools. These tools were crafted with greater precision and efficiency.
• Pottery: Neolithic communities initially handcrafted pottery and later adopted the potter's wheel. Types of pottery included:
  • Black burnished ware
  • Grey ware
  • Mat-impressed ware
  This marked a significant expansion in the scale of pottery production.

4. Chalcolithic Age (Copper-Stone Age)

• Period: Spans from around 3000 BCE to 500 BCE in different parts of the Indian subcontinent.
• Metals: The simultaneous use of metal and stone tools happened from this period. Copper was the first metal employed during this age.
• Agriculture: Played a significant role, with the cultivation of wheat, rice, bajra, and several pulses like lentils, black gram.
• Domestication: Communities engaged in the domestication of various animals, such as cows, sheep, goats, pigs, and buffaloes.
• Ahar-Banas Culture: It was a Chalcolithic culture located in present-day Rajasthan. It is characterized by distinctive black-and-red ware pottery, early use of copper tools, and evidence of agriculture and settled village life.
• Black-and-Red Ware: A distinctive type of pottery associated with various ancient cultures, dating from the Chalcolithic period to the Iron Age. It is characterized by its unique two-tone color scheme: the interior and upper portion of the vessel are black, while the exterior and lower portion are red.

5. Bronze Age

• Discovery: During this era, the discovery of bronze, an alloy of tin and copper, provided an alternative for tool production, offering increased rigidity and durability compared to copper tools.
• Prominent Civilization: The most prominent Bronze Age civilization in India was the Indus Valley Civilization (also known as the Harappan Civilization), which flourished in the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent.
• Period: It spanned around 3300–1200 BCE.
• Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP): Named for its distinctive ochre or reddish-orange color, which results from the use of iron-rich clay and specific firing techniques. OCP is primarily found in the Ganges-Yamuna doab region and other parts of northern India.

6. Harappan / Indus Valley Civilisation

Important Terms

• Citadel: A fortress, typically one on high ground above a city.
• Gabarbands: A Large old Dam.
• Meluha: Ancient name given to the Indus region.
• Dilmun and Magan: These were important trading partners and geographical locations in the ancient world. Dilmun, centered around Bahrain, and Magan, encompassing the Oman peninsula, were known for their maritime capabilities and trade with Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley civilization.
• Pictographic: A form of writing that uses images/drawings.
• Logosyllabic: A writing system that combines logograms (symbols representing words or morphemes) and syllabic signs (symbols representing syllables) to convey meaning and sound. The Harappan script is argued to be either pictographic or logosyllabic or a combination of both. As it remains undeciphered, it is difficult to say for sure what kind of script it is.
• Boustrophedon: An Ancient writing style. Right to left & then left to right writing in the next line.
• Bronze Casting: The process of pouring molten bronze into a hollow mould to create a positive bronze sculpture or object.
• Cire Perdue: Process by which a duplicate metal sculpture is cast from an original sculpture.
• Red and Black Ware: Pottery style; characterized by red ware adorned with black designs, often depicting trees and circles.

7. Early Vedic / Rigvedic Period

Geographical Terms

• Kubha: Modern-day Kabul
• Himavant: Himalaya
• Munjavant: Modern day Hindukush
• Sapta Sindhu: Land of Seven Rivers - Area where Aryans lived, which comprised of Sindhu and its five tributaries:
  • Vitasta (Jhelum)
  • Asikani (Chenab)
  • Vipas (Beas)
  • Parushni (Ravi)
  • Sutudri (Sutlej)
  • Saraswati (an ancient river mentioned in the Vedic texts)

Social and Political Terms

• Varnas: 4 social divisions in society (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya, Shudra) based on the profession/occupation (not hereditary).
• Sabha: An assembly of elders or prominent individuals, primarily involved in decision-making and governance.
• Samiti: A broader assembly that included common people, playing a role in advising and consenting to decisions made by the decision-making authorities.
• Vidhata: An early Vedic tribal assembly with religious and social functions, often associated with rituals and community welfare.
• Panis: A group of wealthy merchants, often seen as traders who controlled trade.

8. Later Vedic Period

Geographical Terms

• Aryavarta: Northern India
• Madhyadesa: Central India
• Dakshinapatha: Southern India

Administrative Terms

• Akshvapa: Accountant
• Bali sadhaka: Officers for collecting Bali
• Bhagadugha: Tax collector
• Gramani: Village chiefs who functioned as leaders of tribal regiments
• Kshata: Keeper of the King's household
• Madhyamasi: Mediator in Disputes
• Palagala: Messenger
• Ratnin: Officials
• Senani: Provincial Governor
• Jivagribha and Ugra: Police Officers
• Sthapathi: Commander-in-Chief
• Vid: Knowledge
• Rajan (GopatiJanasya or Janasya Gopa): King
• Pushan: Guardian of hoard, herders, stray cattle

Economic Terms

• Urvara: Cultivated land
• Vrajapati: Officer in charge of pasture land
• Vrihi: Rice
• Yava: Crop of barley
• Aval: Wells
• Ayas: Copper or bronze
• Dhanya: Grains
• Gomat: Wealthy person with cattle wealth
• Gopati: Monarch/Raja whose main duty was to protect cows
• Hiranyaka: Goldsmith
• Kulya: Canal
• Godhuli: Unit of measure of time
• Kusidin: Money lending
• Nishka, Krishna, and Satmana: Names of Gold coins used during the period
• Phala, Langla, Sira: Plough

Religious/Social Terms

• Adhvaryu: The priest of Yajurveda
• Aranyakas: These are Vedic texts composed by hermits in the forest
• Ashwamedh: A sacrifice associated with Political paramountcy
• Agnihotra: A simple domestic sacrifice
• Dasyus: Original inhabitants of the Indian Sub-continent
• Dasuhatya: Slaughter of Dasyus
• Goghna: Guests during the Later Vedic Age who were fed on cattle
• Niyoga: The practice of allowing a childless widow to cohabit with her brother-in-law until the birth of a son.
• Dikshita: One who had undergone imitation for Vedic sacrifice
• Dvija: Twice born as per the Varna system
• Gavishti: Search or War or Raid for cows
• Rajsuya: A grand royal consecration sacrifice performed by kings (rajas) to legitimize their sovereignty, proclaim imperial authority, and establish dominance over neighboring kingdoms.
• Samhita: Collection of Vedic hymns
• Savitri: The goddess to whom the Gayatri Mantra is dedicated
• Shrauta: Grand Sacrifice
• Udgatri: Priest of Samveda
• Upanayan: Leading forth a boy to study under a teacher
• Duhitri: Daughter: Milcher of Cow

9. Age of Mahajanapadas (Pre-Mauryan Period)

• Nishka and Satamana: Coins used in this Period
• Vessa: Merchants Street
• Balisadhakas: Tax Collecting Official
• Grihapatis: Head of household who can be rich peasants.
• Mahamatras: General Term for Officials
• Mantrin: Ministers
• Senanayaka: Commander-in-Chief
• Aayuktas: Term for Officials
• Gramabhojaka/ Gramini/ Gramika: Village Head
• Seniya: The one 'with an army' (used for Bimbisar)
• Sarvaksatrantaka: Destroyer of all Kshatriyas (used for Mahapadmananda)
• Ekarat: One Suzerain
• Hydaspes: Jhelum
• Hyphasis: Beas

10. Buddhism

Three Jewels (Triratna)

• Buddha (Enlightened)
• Dhamma (Doctrine)
• Sangha (Commune)

Four Noble Truths

• Dukha: Life is full of sorrow
• Dukha Samudaya: Cause of Sorrow is desire
• Dukha Nirodha: Sorrow can be stopped
• Ashtangika Marga: Path leading to cessation of sorrow

Five Principles (Panch Sheel)

• Abstain from killing
• Abstain from stealing
• Abstain from sexual misconduct
• Abstain from wrong speech
• Abstain from the use of intoxicating substances that cause inattention

Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)

• Right Observation
• Right Determination
• Right Speech
• Right Action
• Right Livelihood
• Right Exercise
• Right Memory
• Right Meditation

Bodhisattvas

• Vajrapani: Holds a thunderbolt (similar to Indra)
• Avalokitesvara: Also called as Padmapani (Lotus Bearer)
• Manjushri: The Buddha of Wisdom, wielding a flaming sword to cut ignorance and holding a scripture (Prajnaparamita Sutra) symbolizing transcendent knowledge.
• Maitreya: Considered as the Future Buddha
• Kshitigriha: Guardian of Purgatories
• Amitabha/Amitayusha: Buddha of Heaven

Sects of Buddhism

Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle)

• Believed original teachings of Buddha
• Individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation
• Favoured Pali language
• Also Known as Southern Buddhist Religion
• Two sub-sects: Vaibhasika and Sautantrika

Mahayana (Great Vehicle)

• Believed in the heavenliness of Buddha
• Salvation through grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisattva
• Believed in idol-worship
• Favoured Sanskrit language
• Also Known as Northern Buddhist Religion
• Two sub-sects: Madhyamika or Shunyavada (founder: Nagarjuna) and Yogachar/Vijnanavada (Founder: Maitreyanath)

Vajrayana (Diamond Vehicle)

• Chief divinities: the Taras
• Salvation to be attained by Magical powers
• Popular in Eastern India, particularly in Bengal

Other Important Terms

• Sutta Pitaka: Buddha's sayings
• Vinay Pitaka: Monastic code
• Abhidhamma Pitaka: Religious discourses of Buddha
• Milindapanho: Dialogue between Menander (Indo-Greek ruler) and Nagasena (Buddhist Saint)
• Dipavamsa/ Mahavamsa: Chronicles of Sri Lanka
• Aniccha: Impermanence
• Shramans: The monks of Buddhism who acted as torch bearers of the dhamma. These were ascetics who lived a severe and self-denying lifestyle in order to achieve spiritual emancipation. (UPSC 2016)
• Mahabhinishkramana: Great Renunciation
• Mahaparinirvana: Death of enlightened one
• Patichcha-samuppada: The law of dependent origin
• Yogachara: Which gives Supreme importance to meditation and yoga
• Chintamani: A jewel capable of doing miracles in the form of granting wishes but is generally related to granting of spiritual fulfillment, usually by Avalokiteshvara
• Shunyata: Buddhist Doctrine associated with Madhyamik asset, which means appearances are misleading
• Uposatha: The ceremony of a New Moon or full moon
• Tathagata: The liberated one. The one who is free from cycle of death and birth
• Pattimokha: Rules to be followed by the monks
• Upasampada: The ordinary ceremony when The Novice became a full-fledged monk
• Upasakas: Worshippers of Buddhism
• Pravrajya: Ceremony for person going homeless into search of wisdom or knowledge
• Pavarana: Confession of wrong deeds by a Buddhist monk
• Visuddhimagga: Treaty written by Buddha gosha which define path of purification
• Nigrantha: One who free from all the bonds
• Stupa: Buddhist structure containing relics of Buddha

11. Jainism

Triratna or Three Gems

• Samyak Shradha/Viswas: Right Faith
• Samyak Jnan: Right Knowledge
• Samyak Karma: Right Action/Conduct

Pancha Mahavratas (Five Great Vows)

• Ahimsa: Non-injury
• Satya: Non-lying
• Asteya: Non-stealing
• Aparigraha: Non-possession
• Brahmacharya: Chastity (added by Mahavira)

Philosophy

• Rejected the authority of Vedas and Vedic rituals
• Did not believe in the existence of God
• Believed in Karma and transmigration of Soul
• Emphasised on Equality
• Anekantavada: The theory of plurality or multi-sidedness. Possibility of seven modes of prediction or Saptabhangi Nayavad.

Sects of Jainism

• Svetambaras (White Clad):
  • Stayed back during famine in Magadha in 298 BC
  • Led by Sthulabhadra
• Digambaras (Sky Clad):
  • Went to Deccan and South India. Practised complete nudity
  • Led by Bhadrabahu along with Chandragupta Maurya
• Yapaniya: Now extinct, some believe that it acted as a bridge between the Svetambaras and Digambaras

Other Important Terms

• Anuvratas: The "lesser vows" in Jainism, designed for lay followers (Śrāvakas and Śrāvikās) who seek to live a morally disciplined life while remaining in society
• Arihant: Blessed one
• Avadhi jnana: Clairvoyant perception
• Jaina: One who conquered his senses
• Kaivalya: Kevala Jnana, means omniscience in Jainism
• Kevalin: Perfectly learned
• Mahavira: The brave
• Mahavratas: The five supreme ethical vows observed by Jain monks and nuns
• Mati jnana: Perception through activity of sense organs
• Nigranthas: Free from all bonds
• Shruta jnana: Knowledge revealed by scriptures
• Asrav: The flow of Karma Particle towards Jiva
• Siddha loka: Final abode of the liberated soul
• Gunnasthan: Fourteen stages of Purification
• Samvara: Stopping the flow of Karma
• Nirjara: Wearing out the accumulated of Karma
• Mohaniya Karma: Delusion creating Karma
• Shravak pratima: Steps by whom a lay flower may achieve renunciation
• Parivraajaka: Wandering mendicants (often associated with early Buddhist/Jain traditions) who renounced worldly life. (UPSC 2016)

12. Summary: Key Concepts and Terms

Period-wise Summary

Religious Terms Comparison