1. Mahajanapadas (600 BCE – 322 BCE)

Magadha Kingdoms and Rulers

Haryanka Dynasty

• Bimbisara (544–492 BC):
  • Strengthened his kingdom through matrimonial alliances.
  • Bimbisara was a contemporary of both Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. Both religions claim him as their supporter and devotee.
  • Assassinated and succeeded by his son, Ajatashatru.
  • Note: The memorising of chronicles, dynastic histories and epic tales was the profession of Magadha. (UPSC 2016)
• Ajatashatru (492–460 BC):
  • Aggressive ruler, expanded territory through conquests.
  • Fortified Rajgriha to counter Avanti's threat.
  • Buddhists and Jains both claim that Ajatasatru was a follower of their religion.
  • He met Buddha, this scene is also depicted in the sculptures of Barhut.
  • Oversaw the First Buddhist Council after Buddha's Parinirvana (483 BC).
• Udayin (460–444 BC):
  • Established Pataliputra as the new capital at the Ganga-Son confluence.
  • Udayin's successors were weak rulers and hence Magadha was captured by Shishunaga.
  • Thus, the Haryanka dynasty came to an end and the Shishunaga dynasty came to power.

Shishunaga Dynasty (413–345 BC)

• Shishunaga:
  • Minister under the last Haryanka ruler, Nagadasaka, before establishing his dynasty in 413 BC.
  • Temporarily shifted the capital to Vaishali.
  • Defeated Avanti, annexing it to Magadha and ending a 100-year rivalry.
  • Succeeded by his son, Kalasoka.
• Kalasoka:
  • Also known as Kakarvarna (as per the Puranas).
  • Conducted the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali.

Nanda Dynasty (345–321 BC)

• Mahapadma Nanda:
  • First empire builder of India, claimed titles Ekarat (sole sovereign) and Sarva-kshatrantaka (destroyer of Kshatriyas).
  • Expanded Magadha by annexing Kalinga and Kosala, suppressing rebellions.
  • Brought an image of Jina as a victory trophy.
  • Strengthened irrigation by constructing canals.
• Dhana Nanda:
  • Last major Nanda ruler, known for his vast army.
  • Referred to as Agrammes/Xandrames by Greek historians.
  • Introduced Nandopakramani, a special measurement system.
  • Faced Alexander's invasion of northwest India (327–325 BC).

2. Mauryan Empire (321–185 BC)

Rulers and Contributions

• Chandragupta Maurya (321–297 BC):
  • Overthrew the Nandas with Chanakya's help and founded the Maurya Empire.
  • Known as Sandrakottus in Greek accounts.
  • Megasthenes was the ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya sent by Seleucus I Nicator and wrote "Indica".
  • Defeated Greek prefects left by Alexander and unified most of the subcontinent except Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and parts of the northeast.
  • Pliny mentions his massive army, including infantry, cavalry, elephants, chariots, and a navy.
• Bindusara (297–273 BC):
  • Expanded and consolidated the empire, maintaining diplomatic ties with Greek states.
  • Guided by Chanakya and other ministers in administration.
  • Bindusara received Deimachus as ambassador from the Syrian king Antiochus I.
  • Bindusara supported the Ajivikas, a religious sect. Bindusara appointed his son Ashoka as the governor of Ujjain.
• Ashoka (268–232 BC):
  • Referred to as Chakravartin in Buddhist texts.
  • The Kalinga War (depicted in the Ashoka Edict: Rock Edict XIII) led to his adoption of Dhamma.
  • Followed religious tolerance, making donations to Ajivikas, Buddhists, and others.
  • First Indian king to communicate directly with people through inscriptions, placed along highways.
  • Advocated paternal kingship, treating subjects as his children.
  • Dhamma policy promoted harmony, as reflected in the Kandahar inscription.
  • Ashoka embraced Buddhism after the Kalinga war. His Dhamma Policy emphasized ethical living, respect for all religions, and welfare of his subjects through justice and compassion.
  • He appointed special officers called Dharma Mahamatras to speed up the progress of Dhamma.
  • In 241 B.C., he visited the birth place of Buddha, the Lumbini Garden, near Kapilavastu. He also visited other holy places of Buddhism like Sarnath, Sravasti and Kusinagara.
  • He sent a mission to Sri Lanka under his son Mahendra and daughter Sangamitra who planted the branch of the original Bodhi tree.
  • Ashoka advised his subjects through this inscription, "Whosoever praises his religious sect or blames other sects out of excessive devotion to his own sect, with the view of glorifying his own sect, he rather injures his own sect very severely." (UPSC 2020)
  • At Kanganahalli, a relief sculpture bears the inscriptions 'Ranyo Ashoka' (King Ashoka), identifying the stone portrait of Emperor Ashoka. (UPSC 2019)
  • In Maski inscription, for the first time, the name Ashoka appears linked to "Devanampriya".
  • James Prinsep first deciphered the edicts of Emperor Ashoka. (UPSC 2016)
• Later Mauryas (232-185 BC):
  • Ashoka's Death (232 BC) → Mauryan Empire ruled by Dasaratha (grandson of Ashoka).
  • Last Maurya Ruler: Brihatratha (assassinated by Pushyamitra Sunga, ending the Mauryan rule).

Foreign Invasions and Impacts

• Iranian Influence:
  • Strengthened trade and commerce, evident from Persian coin finds in India.
  • Persian Sigloi (silver coins) influenced Indian coinage.
  • Kharoshthi script (derived from Aramaic, written right to left) introduced. Used in Ashoka's Mansehra & Shahbazgarhi rock edicts.
  • Iranian artistic influence seen in Mauryan sculptures, such as Ashoka's Lion Capital of Sarnath and Bull Capital of Rampurva.
  • Greek knowledge of India's wealth came through Persia, influencing Alexander's invasion.
• Greek Influence:
  • Established Greek satrapies in northwest India; cities like Alexandria (Sindh, Kabul) & Boukephala (Jhelum) were founded.
  • Weakened northwestern states, facilitating the Mauryan Empire's rise.
  • Opened direct Indo-European trade routes (three land, one sea).
  • Introduced Gandhara art, blending Greek and Indian artistic styles.

3. The Post-Mauryan Period

Sunga Dynasty (185-73 BC)

• Founder: Pushyamitra Sunga (Mauryan commander-in-chief, overthrew the last Maurya ruler).
• Key Challenges: Defended North India from Bactrian Greeks & fought against Kharavela of Kalinga.
• Religion & Culture:
  • Patronized Brahmanism (performed Asvamedha sacrifices).
  • Buddhist monuments at Bharhut & Sanchi were renovated.
• Last Ruler: Devabhuti (assassinated by minister Vasudeva Kanva → Kanva dynasty).
• Significance: Anticipated the Gupta golden age; revived Brahmanism & Sanskrit.

Satavahana Dynasty (250 BC - 250 AD)

• Founder: Simuka.
• Territory: Deccan region (also known as Andhras).
• Notable Rulers:
  • Sri Satakarni: Western Malwa, Berar; performed Asvamedha.
  • Hala: Author of Gathasaptasati in Prakrit.
  • Gautamiputra Satakarni: Greatest ruler, expanded empire, defeated Malwa's Nagapana.
    • His achievements were recorded in the Nasik inscription by his mother Gautami Balasri.
    • Gautamiputra Satakarni captured the whole of Deccan and expanded his empire. His victory over Nagapana, the ruler of Malwa was remarkable.
    • He patronized Brahmanism. Yet, he also gave donations to Buddhists.
  • Vashishtaputra Pulamayi: Issued ship coins, showing maritime trade.
    • Vashishtaputra Pulamayi repaired the old Amaravathi stupa.
    • He extended the Satavahana power up to the mouth of the Krishna river.
    • He issued coins on which the image of ships was inscribed.
  • Yajna Sri Satakarni: Last great ruler.

Indo-Greeks (Yavana Kingdom) (180-130 BC)

• Also known as Indo-Bactrians, they ruled northwestern India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of Iran.
• First foreign rulers to invade India, reaching Ayodhya (Saketa) and Pataliputra.
• Key Developments:
  • Introduced gold coinage, the first in India.
  • First to issue coins attributed to specific kings.
• Notable Rulers:
  • Demetrius II (180 BC)
  • Antialcidas
  • Menander (165/145–130 BC): Most prominent Indo-Greek ruler.
    • Ruled from Kabul and Indus valleys to western Uttar Pradesh.
    • Capital: Sakala (modern Sialkot, Pakistan).
    • Titled 'Soter' (Saviour) on coins.
    • Converted to Buddhism under Nagasena, as recorded in Milinda Panho. (UPSC 2023)

The Shakas (Scythians) (20 BC - 150 AD)

• The Sakas, Parthians (Pahlavis), and Kushanas (Yuezhi) displaced the Indo-Greeks.
• They established five branches in Afghanistan, Punjab, Mathura, Western India, and Upper Deccan.
• Maues (Moa/Moga) was the first Saka ruler in India (20 BC – 22 AD).
• Key Developments:
  • Governance by Kshatrapas (Satraps), who often became independent rulers.
  • Rudradaman I (130–150 AD): Significant Shaka ruler, controlling Sindh, Gujarat, Konkan, Malwa, and Kathiawar.
    • Repaired Sudarshana Lake (Kathiawar) for irrigation.
    • Defeated the Satavahanas (recorded in Junagadh inscription, Gujarat).
    • Issued the first long Sanskrit inscription, reflecting his cultural inclination.

The Parthians (Pahlavas) (1st Century AD)

• Originally from Iran, they migrated to India.
• Gondophernes (1st century AD): Key ruler who displaced the Shakas and conquered Kabul (43 AD) but later lost it to the Kushanas.

The Kushanas (1st to 3rd century AD)

• A clan of the Yuechi (Tocharians), they succeeded the Parthians and Scythians.
• Originating from north Central Asia (near China), they occupied Bactria (North Afghanistan) after defeating the Shakas.
• Key Rulers:
  • Kadphises I (c. 50 AD): Issued copper coins south of the Hindukush.
  • Kadphises II: Expanded east of the Indus River, issued gold coins.
  • Kanishka: Founder of the second Kushana dynasty, extended power to Upper India and Lower Indus Basin.
    • Rabatak Inscription (Afghanistan) mentions his title 'Devputra'.
    • Depicted in a peaked helmet on coins and a belted tunic with boots (Mathura statue), reflecting Central Asian roots.
    • Initiated the Shaka Era (78 AD), still used in Indian chronology.
• Kanishka's Contributions:
  • Initially a Buddhist, Kanishka promoted Mahayana Buddhism, introducing image worship and rituals. He sent missionaries to Central Asia and China.
  • His coins depict Buddha, Greek, and Hindu gods, showing his religious tolerance.
  • Kanishka convened the Fourth Buddhist Council at Kundalavana, Kashmir, led by Vasumitra with 500 monks.
  • It finalized Mahayana doctrines and compiled commentaries on the Tripitakas.
  • He supported scholars like Vasumitra, Asvagosha (author of Buddhacharita), and Nagarjuna, as well as the physician Charaka.
  • He also built Buddhist chaityas and viharas across his empire.

4. Gupta Period (319-467 AD)

Rulers and Contributions

• Chandragupta I (319-335 AD):
  • Founder: Sri Gupta → Succeeded by Ghatotkacha.
  • Chandragupta I (320 AD) → First to be called Maharajadhiraja.
  • Expanded empire through conquests.
  • Strengthened position via matrimonial alliance with Licchavis (married Kumaradevi).
  • Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription mentions his conquests.
  • Started the Gupta Era (320 AD).
• Samudragupta (335-375 AD):
  • Allahabad pillar inscription (composed by Harisena in Sanskrit) records his military conquests.
  • Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka, sought his permission to build a Buddhist temple in Gaya.
  • Called 'Napoleon of India' by V.A. Smith, as he remained undefeated.
  • Performed the Asvamedha sacrifice and issued coins with the title 'Restorer of the Asvamedha'.
  • Known as 'Kaviraja' for his love of poetry and music.
  • Samudragupta issued 8 types of gold coins with inscriptions of his achievements.
• Chandragupta II (375-415 AD):
  • Expanded the Gupta Empire to its peak.
  • Assumed the title Vikramaditya (earlier used by a Ujjain ruler in 58 BC).
  • Made Ujjain his second capital.
  • Matrimonial alliances: married Kuberanaga, a Naga Princess.
    • His daughter Prabhavati married to the Vakataka prince Rudrasena II.
  • First Gupta ruler to issue silver coins.
  • Chinese traveler Fa Hein visited India during his reign.
  • Patronized nine luminaries (Navaratnas) in his court.
  • Chandragupta II & successors issued gold, silver, and copper coins showcasing artistic excellence.
  • Vishakhadatta, a Gupta-era playwright, wrote Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam. (UPSC 2023)
  • Kalidasa is associated with Chandra Gupta-II. (UPSC 2020)
• Kumaragupta I (415-455 AD):
  • Also known as Sakraditya, son of Chandragupta II.
  • Founded Nalanda University.
    • Destroyed in the 12th century AD, in 1193, by Turkish ruler Qutbuddin Aibak's general Bakhtiyar Khilji.
    • Prominent Teachers at Nalanda: Aryabhatta, Nagarjuna, Dinnaga, Dharmapala etc.
  • Faced initial incursions from the Huns of Central Asia.
• Skandagupta (455-467 AD):
  • The last great Gupta ruler, son of Kumaragupta I.
  • Successfully repelled a Hun invasion, though it weakened the empire's treasury.
  • His reign is documented in the Bhitari monolithic pillar inscription.

5. Harsha Empire (606–647 AD)

Early Life & Rise to Power

• Founder: Pushyabhuti (Vardhana dynasty), they were originally feudatories of the Guptas.
• Prabhakaravardhana (first key ruler, capital: Thaneswar).
• Rajyavardhana succeeded him but was murdered by Sasanka (Bengal).
• Harsha succeeded him.

Military Conquests

• Defeated Sasanka (Bengal) & took Kanauj – made it his capital.
• Defeated Dhruvasena II of Valabhi – became his vassal.
• Lost to Pulakesin II (Chalukya ruler) – Aihole inscription confirms Harsha's defeat.
• Nepal, Kashmir, Kamarupa (Assam) acknowledged his suzerainty.
• Final conquest: Kalinga (Orissa) – successful.

Extent of Empire

• Controlled the region between the Ganges and Yamuna.
• Maintained friendly ties with China; contemporary of T'ang Emperor Tai Tsung.

Administration

• Hiuen Tsang's records mention, ordeals by fire, water, and poison were used to determine guilt.
• Tradesmen paid duties at ferries and barrier stations. (UPSC 2013)
• Hiuen Tsang mentions his Chaturanga army:
  • Chatas & Bhatas – Ordinary soldiers
  • Brihadisvaras – Cavalry officers
  • Baladhikritas & Mahabaladhikritas – Infantry officers

Religion and Culture

• A Hindu ruler but a patron of Mahayana Buddhism.
• Organized two Buddhist assemblies:
  • Kanauj Assembly – Attended by 20 kings, including Bhaskaravarman of Kamarupa, and scholars of Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism. A golden Buddha statue was consecrated.
  • Prayag Assembly (Mahamoksha Parishad) – Held every five years, distributing lavish gifts to Buddhist monks.
• Harsha's plays – Ratnavali, Nagananda, Priyadarshika.
• Banabatta wrote Harshacharita (first formal king's biography) & Kadambari.

6. Summary: Ancient and Medieval Dynasties